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Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin

^^4983.=

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Calendar: Man' Cassai
Staff Photograpiher: Ron Testa

Board of Trustees

William G. Swartchild, Jr.,

chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gorden Bent
Bowen Blair
Willard L. Boyd
Mrs. Robert Wells Carton
Stanton R. Cook
O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Doimelley n
Marshall Field
Hugo]. Melvoin
Charles F. Murphy, Jr.
Lorin 1. Nevling, Jr.
James J. O'Connor
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
William L. Searle
Edward Byron Smith
Robert H.'Strotz
John W. Sullivan
Edward R. Telling
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leiand Webber
Julian B. Wilkins
Blaine J. Yarrington

Life Trustees

Harry O. Bercher
William McCormick Blair
Joseph N. Field
Paul W. Goodrich
CUfford C. Gregg
Samuel InsuU, Jr.
William V Kahler
William H. Mitchell
John M. Simpson
J. Howard Wood

CONTENTS

January 1982
Volume 53, Number 1

\ew light on Peru's Past

By Michael E. Moseley, Robert A. Feldman,
and Irene Pritzker

Ancient Air Breathers

By W.D.Ian Rolf e

Latin American Neighbors Day

Egyptian Hall Rejuvenated

Field Museum Tours

Tribes, Traditions, and Totem Poles:
The Northwest Coast Achievement

Learning Museum Program
By Anthony Pfeiffer

Index to Volume 52 (1981)

Letters from the Arctic — /

By Edward Olsen

Our Environment

January and February at Field Museum

Calendar of coming events

back
cover

COVER

The high grasslands of southern Peru (here over 4300 meters
above sea level) are the home of llamas and alpacas, the domesti-
cated New World camelids. These animals are important today,
as they were 1,000 years ago, for the wool and meat they
provide. Photo by Robert A. Feldman.

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, n, 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Postmaster: Please send from 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History,
Roosevelt Road at Uke Shore Drive, Chicago, U. 60605. ISSN:aO15-0703. Second class posUge
paid at Chicago, 11.

New Ligfit on Peru!s Past

Recent discoveries on the site of a large copper mine in southern Peru have led to
the formation of a new archeological program in which Field Museum will play
a major role

By Michael E. Moseley, Robert A. Feldman, and Irene Pritzker

Photos by Robert A. Feldman

On the eve of Columbus's New World land-
fall, the largest empire in the world was
probably Tahuantinsuyu, or the "Land of the
Four Quarters," as the Inca called their sprawling
realm. The empire stretched along the moun-
tainous Andean backbone of South America for
more than 4,300 kilometers, an expanse rivaling
the Roman Empire. There is today no Andean
nation of comparable magnitude; nor in the past
did larger states arise, neither in the New World,
nor south of the equator in the Old World.
The four- fold division of the realm was
made for administrative purposes, and reflects
salient geographical differences within the far-

flung empire. Contisuyu was the southwestern
quarter of Tahuantinsuyu and comprised much
of what is today southern Peru. The Inca con-
quest of the southern Andes and their domina-
tion of earlier civilizations is not well known or
understood. Smallpox and other diseases of
European origin decimated the empire as the
Conquistadors were plundering it, and the ear-

Michael E. Moseley is associate curator of Middle and
South American archeology and ethnology; Robert A.
Feldman is visiting assistant curator of South American
archeology; and Irene Pritzker is in the Post-Graduate En-
glish Program at the University of Chicago and is a coor-
dinator of the Contisuyu Program.

Field Museum ar-
cheologist Robert
Feldman examines
ventilator opening in
wall of recently iden-
tified Inca storehouse
upriverfrom Cerro
Baul.

liest written accounts of Contisuyu begin after
Andean civilization was in a state of collapse.

To learn more about the ancient civilizations
of Contisuyu, we scaled the lone precipitous
path winding up the cliff-face of a towering
mesa, called Cerro Baul. This great rock pinnacle
juts out of the center of the little explored
Moquegua Valley, and like a stone battleship,
guards passage between the high mountains and
desert coastlands of southern Peru. Our quest
was the ruined city that sprawled over the sum-
mit of this sheer-sided natural fortress. Like the
mesa of Masada, which confronted the Romans
in ancient Israel, we believe Cerro Baul was the
invincible stronghold where Inca legions were
held at bay by the defenders of Moquegua and
Contisuyu. The one path to the summit is steep,
narrow, and runs a tortuous course between an-
cient defensive walls and rock cliffs where as-
saulting troops could easily be thrown back.

The heroic resistance by the people of
Moquegua is recorded in an account written
hundreds of years ago by Garcilaso de la Vega,
the son of a Conquistador and an Inca noble-
woman. He reports that after learning of the Inca

Villages of later prehistoric periods were often built on defen-
sible hilltops overlooking the river valleys. Elaborate systems
of canals and terraces allowed crops to he raised on steep
slopes.

emperor Mayta Capac's setting forth with his
armies to conquer Contisuyu, the populace
armed and provisioned themselves. They then
withdrew to the towering mesa overlooking
their homeland, which could only be Cerro Baul.
The Inca legions could not scale the cliff-faces or
take the great natural bastion by storm, nor could
the conquest of Contisuyu proceed beyond this
defiant fortress; so Mayta Capa encamped his
forces around the great hill and set siege so that
the defenders could obtain neither food nor
water from the valley below. The isolation of the
great mesa proved to be a liability: its defenders
became its prisoners.

Garcilaso tells of the fall of Cerro Baul. After
fifty days without food or water, the elders sent
the children down in hopes that the Inca would
show mercy and that the young would not die
for the resistance of their fathers. But Mayta
Capac did not wish to harm any of the people, so
he sent the children back up the mountain with
food and water for all. Seeing the Inca's compas-
sion, the defenders surrendered and submitted
to Inca rule.

Upon reaching the summit of Cerro Baul,

L'V

l^?^:

Fortress-like mesa of
Cerro Baul (center
background) provided
refuge to inhabitants of
Moquegua when the
Inca came to conquer
the valley. It fell after a
50-day siege. Store-
houses (foreground)
built by the victo-
rious incas today
lie in ruins.

the weary hiker is today greeted by an amazing
view of grandeur that reaches from the snow-
covered peaks of the Andes down toward the
Pacific coastlands. Far below the mesa the Rio
Moquegua ghmmers like a distant ribbon. The
river is only 125 kilometers long, and its waters
cascade down the western face of the Andes,
descending more than 4,500 meters before emp-
tying into the ocean. This exceptional change in
altitude creates an ideal ecological research situa-
tion, because over a very short horizontal dis-
tance the Rio Moquegua transects a great range
of environments.

This ecological diversity is not random, but
stratified by altitude into distinct environmental
belts stacked one atop another. In this situation,
archeologists can follow human development
back in time through a series of very different
physical settings. These settings range from the
"altiplano," or high plain, where llamas and al-
pacas pasture, to the rocky seacoast, where fish-
ing is the way of life. The basic ecological divi-
sions of the watershed are defined by rainfall,
which is seasonal above 2,000 meters and com-
pletely absent at lower elevations. Indeed, the
lower valley cuts through the world's driest des-
ert, where decades can pass without even a
shower.

From the top of the towering mesa, it
is possible to catch a glimpse of the distant
Cuajone open pit copper mine in the remote
mountains from which the Rio Moquegua de-
scends. The mine began operations in 1976, and
while it was under construction the local com-
munity and mine officials became concerned as

they realized that they were discovering one
archeological monument after another. At this
point. Southern Peru Copper Corporation, the
mine operators, approached Field Museum for
advice, and it was this contact that brought us to
Moquegua for reconnaissance purposes and to
the summit of Cerro Baul, where we hoped to
begin unraveling Inca from pre-Inca civilization
in the valley.

Because the Moquegua drainage is un-
explored archeologically, our initial reconnais-
sance has been concerned with discovering the
numbers and types of sites and monuments in
the region. Here, the use of a small airplane
owned by the mine has proved invaluable in
providing a rapid overview of the many ruins
tucked away in desert canyons and mountain
corridors. This reconnaissance has shown that
the valley contains more than 500 archeological
sites spanning some 10,000 years of human en-
deavor. Discoveries range from painted caves
through cities older and larger than Machu
Picchu to the citadel-city of Cerro Baul. Apart
from imposing architecture, many ruins contain
a myriad of artifacts, ornate textiles, and mum-
mified human remains. Broad expanses of aban-
doned agricultural terraces cover the mountain-
sides, and ancient canals built with sophisticated
engineering methods reach across the desert
plains.

Today Cerro Baul is covered by a ruined
city some 8 hectares (20 acres) in size. A series of
plazas and large buildings — some that were once
two stories tall — claim the central area. Next to
them are large, deep pits, probably granaries and

cisterns for storing water. The houses of the an-
cient city are jumbled and closely packed. Here
and there are large grindstones (weighing over
45 kg, or 100 pounds), which have been labori-
ously hauled up from below; broken pottery lit-
ters the ground.

Discovering ancient monuments is both
exciting and easy when done by airplane. How-
ever, dating such discoveries is difficult and tedi-
ous in an unexplored region where the sequence
of past civilizations is not known. The Inca con-
quest and assimilation of Moquegua left a dis-
tinctive archeological stamp on many of the later
prehistoric sites. However, among the
thousands of sherds of pottery among the ruins
of the mesa-top city we did not encounter Inca
materials. It may be that the Emperor Mayta
Capac forced the citadel to be abandoned in
order to forestall any possible rebellion once his
legions moved on to conquests further afield —
this remains for future research to establish.

The ruins do contain pottery in a pure
Tiwanaku style, and effectively date at least part
of the ancient city to A.D. 500-700. Tiwanaku
was a great pre-Inca empire, and its capital city
was near the edge of Lake Titicaca on the alti-
plano, high above Cerro Baul. We have encoun-
tered pottery of this imperial style at scattered
sites all the way down to the port city of Ilo, at
the mouth of the Moquegua Valley. Because the
desert around Ilo is even drier than that of an-
cient Egypt, archeological preservation is excep-
tional, and ancient cemeteries yield fine textiles,
feather headdresses, and other delicate objects,
including elaborate tapestry tunics of Tiwanaku
style. As yet, we do not know if these magnifi-
cent Tiwanaku tapestries — or the pottery at
Cerro Baul — reflect a military conquest like that
of the Inca, or if more peaceful colonization was
involved. We know that the Aymara kingdoms,
which arose around Lake Titicaca after the fall of
Tiwanaku, maintained peaceful colonies of
farmers in the Moquegua Valley, and this pat-
tern might extend back to the earlier empire.

Looking out from the summit of Cerro Baul,
great tracts of abandoned terraces can be seen
flanking the valley and extending back into
the mountains. Agricultural terraces such as
these were so characteristic of the highlands of
Tahuantinsuyu that the Spanish Conquistadors
gave the native name for the terraces, andenes,
to the whole cordillera — the Andes. Farming on
any scale within the Andean highlands must be
based on terraces, as the valleys are steep-sided,
with very little flat land even near the rivers.
The engineering problems presented by the
steep hillsides and rapidly flowing rivers were
enormous, though successfully overcome. A far
greater area was farmed in the past than today.

Where modern irrigation farming ends, the
canals often do not: they continue for kilometers
through remnants of abandoned terraced fields.

The terraces are not the only evidence of
long-term agricultural changes. Long canals and
irrigation systems now make the desert area on
the floor of the valley productive, but hundreds
of hectares of now-barren land on either side of
Moquegua reveal a webwork of small feeder
canals, showing that this area too was once
farmed. A strong wind, occurring daily, has
blown away most of the soil from the fields, but
the canals are preserved because of their stone
lining or by thick layers of hard silt deposited in
them during their use.

Coastal Chirihaya-style pottery (ca. a.d. 1200) features mul-
ticolored geometric designs, probably derived by simplifying
and stylizing the more naturalistic Tiwanaku designs from
the Bolivian altiplano.

Nowhere in the world do people simply
abandon arable land; but nowhere in the world
has as much land been abandoned as in the
Andes. Survey has shown that many of the
Moquegua terraces are associated with pre-Inca
settlements as well as with Inca sites, but ques-
tions such as how they were watered — from
canals or by rainfall — and why they are not now
in use remain unanswered. Study of the ter-
races can provide important information on past
climatic conditions, and whether there have
been changes in rainfall, evaporation, or river
flow — changes that could have important
implications for the future of the region.

When and why these fields were aban-
doned are also important questions. The Inca
chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega relates that
when the Inca Mayta Capac conquered the
Moquegua area it was underpopulated, so he

Much of the lower part ofContisuyu is dry and barren, with
farming now limited to narrow river valleys (center). In the

brought in settlers. The abandoned fields ap-
pear to be more closely related to the earlier
Tiwanaku villages than to the later, scantier Inca
remains. It appears that the Moquegua Valley
saw several peaks and declines in population.

past, canals carried water out of valleys to fields on some of
these wastelands.

The causes for the abandonment of the agricul-
tural lands need to be understood, especially
the question of whether these causes could
recur and affect the area's modern inhabitants.
After the Inca's armies took Cerro Baul, they

moved its defenders out of their villages and
resettled them — along with the colonists that
were brought in to pacify and repopulate the
region— in two new villages. Garcilaso named
only one of them — Moquegua — so there has
been some speculation about the second. We
think we have found the evidence needed to
answer this question.

We discovered spectacular terrace systems
and a major complex of monumental architecture
in the mountains above the sierra town of Torata,
within the sight of Cerro Baul. The complex is
tied to an Inca highway that descends the crest of
a long mountain ridge covered with abandoned
terraces. Walking down the road, the visitor is
first greeted by a scatter oichulpas, circular
masonry burial towers. Chulpas are an altiplano
attribute that we have not found in the lower
coastal valley. Below the ruined towers, the an-
cient road is straddled by an impressive group of
stone-walled Inca storehouses. The walls of
these four ranks of rooms still stand high, after
almost 500 years of abandonment. Small open-
ings in the sides at ground level — below the
raised floors inside — served as ventilators and
show that these storerooms held agricultural
produce, undoubtedly gathered from the stone-
faced terraces that blanket the hUls on all sides.

A short distance away is a fortified village,
its jumbled walls presenting a very different
aspect from the regimented storerooms. Pottery
found on the site shows a mixture of local and
Inca styles, a pattern often repeated in the Inca
provinces. When they conquered an area the
Incas Would not replace the local culture, but
rather would superimpose their own. Physical
evidence of the Incas, such as architecture and
pottery, is often restricted to sites they actually
occupied. Thus, we find the mixture of pottery
styles at the village adjacent to the storerooms,
while in an architecturally identical village only a
kilometer away, Inca pottery is extremely rare.

An even greater contrast is seen down in the
valley by Torata, where there is an Inca adminis-
trative center adjacent to a local village. The Inca
center is severely regimented, with identical
rooms grouped inside walled rectangular blocks
lining a grid of streets. To build their city, the
Incas chose (and possibly partially leveled) a flat
saddle on a ridge. The rocky promontory at the
end of the ridge is occupied by the local village.
Its rooms are built on terraces following the
curve of the hill and lack the order and regularity
of the Incas' rigid blocks. Very little Inca pottery
was found at the local village, showing that even
though they existed side-by-side, the culture of
the conquerers made few inroads on the local
pattern.

The Inca administrative center identifies the

10,000-year-old paintings found on the walls of two caves
near Toquepala show ancient hunters stalking wild game of
Andes. Unfortunately, vandalism threatens to destroy
these priceless artifacts. One of the aims of the new Con-
tisuyu Program is to prevent similar destruction of
Moquegua's cultural heritage.

Heavy grindstones found on Cerro Baul shew that people
once lived in ruined buildings on its summit. Pottery shows
that this occupation dates back some 1,500 years.

Lights of Villa Cuajone

(lower left) signal new

future for Cerro Baul

and other prehistoric

sites in Moquegua.

Money provided by

owners of Cuajone

copper mine wil help

contribute to

protection and study of

these valuable

monuments of

Contisuyu'spasf.

adjacent village as the second of the two founded
after the fall of Cerro Baul. It is possible that we
are too literal in our reading of Garcilaso's chron-
icle, and that this village was not a single concen-
trated settlement such as we are accustomed to.
The storehouse site and its village are about 5
kilometers from the Torata center, but they might
have been part of the same "village" or commu-
nity. More work remains to be done, but we
know where to look.

Below the Inca center, in the middle and
lower Moquegua basin, the severity of the desert
conditions greatly restricts where people can
live: the occupation was densely packed along
the river banks and shoreline, but almost absent
in the intervening desert regions. Canal systems
and irrigation agriculture make the valley zone
productive, and the modern city of Moquegua is
located there. Today, large areas of the river val-
ley are given over to grapes, which are used to
make Moquegua's renowned Pisco brandy. In
the past, maize, beans, cotton, and fruit trees
such as avocado were the principal crops; abun-
dant food remains found in the village middens
will provide important information on past crops
and diet.

Only a few parched olive groves can
be found on the Pacific coast, where water is
extremely scarce. The copper company must
desalinate seawater at great expense in order to
supply the needs of the workers at its smelter
north of the city of Ilo. In the past, limited farm-

ing was possible with the use of short canals
from springs at the base of the Andes. However,
fishing and marine collecting was the most im-
portant way of life on the coast. Extensive shell
middens blanket the coast on either side of Ho —
some are 5,000 or more years old.

In sharp contrast to the coast is the altiplano,
a relatively flat tableland situated more than
4,000 meters above sea level. It is cold and out-
wardly forbidding. Numerous snow-capped
peaks, many volcanic, tower above the plains,
reaching heights over 5,400 meters (17,700 feet).

Human occupation of the altiplano is sparse
and scattered, restricted to areas with favorable
combinations of water, temperature, and wind.
While life is definitely not easy, an extremely
successful adaptation hasbeen developed, based
on herding the llama and alpaca and on cultivat-
ing a suite of high-altitude, frost-tolerant plants,
potatoes in particular. The prehistoric record on
the altiplano goes back many millennia. Survey
of a recently abandoned farmstead there turned
up not only the expected glass and tin cans, but
also stone flakes and projectile points that show
the site to have been occupied over a span of up
to 5,000 years.

The range of archeological monuments
shown to us by officials of the Cuajone mine and
by interested and concerned local residents, as
well as the additional sites we found, confirm the
importance of Moquegua. The discovery of this
cultural wealth created a great deal of excitement

at Field Museum as well as in Peruvian institu-
tions. Luckily, Southern Peru Copper Corpora-
tion was interested in helping, and offered
matching funds to develop a program for the
preservation and study of the valuable sites. As
a result, the Contisuyu Program has recently
been created.

The Contisuyu Program is a cooperative
Peruvian-U.S. agreement involving Field
Museum, the Peruvian Museum of Health Sci-
ences, and the Peruvian National Cultural Insti-
tute. These three institutions have agreed to
combine forces to organize a multinational proj-
ect of investigation, conservation, and regional
development of the cultural heritage of Moque-
gua's portion of Contisuyu. The ultimate goal of
all involved with the program is that the ar-
cheological sites be protected, studied, and
shared with interested visitors from all parts of
the world.

From a Peruvian standpoint, the involve-
ment of Field Museum is very important. From
its beginnings. Field Museum has had a great
interest in Andean research, and is expert in
conceptualizing and implementing broadly
based programs such as the Moquegua sites re-
quire. The transfer of technical and scientific
knowledge to Peru for purposes of taking inven-
tory and protecting the sites is vital to the success
of the Contisuyu Program, and it is in this area
particularly that the Field Museum is uniquely
qualified to contribute. In addition, an area as
large as the Moquegua Valley requires not just
the ability to investigate a particular site, but the
ability to manage a large scale, self-perpetuating
business enterprise. Few museums in the world
know how to do this. Field Museum does, and it
is wilhng to share its expertise with Peru.

The impact of modern civilization on the
region, and the urgent need for the Contisuyu
Program, can be seen at the oldest known mon-
ument in Contisuyu: the Toquepala Caves. Some
10,000 years ago hunter-gatherers lived in the
Toquepala Caves near the Quebrada Cimarron, a
now-dry stream running from the sierra to the
desert. The midden garbage of these ancient res-
idents accumulated in thick deposits covering
the floors of two small caves, and on the cave
walls the people painted a graphic record of their
presence.

Designs in red, black, yellow, and green
show ancient hunters amid herds of guanaco, a
wild relative of the domesticated llamas and al-
pacas. Other animals, including armadillos and
condors, are also shown, along with enigmatic
geometric designs. These hunting scenes are an
irreplaceable window back into the distant past,
long before farming assumed importance.

Unfortunately, vandalism has destroyed

many of the caves' paintings. The caves were
discovered more than twenty years ago by sur-
vey teams planning Southern Peru Copper Cor-
poration's first mine at Toquepala. The mine
funded a study of the paintings, and archeolo-
gists were also sent from Lima. A fence was
erected to protect the paintings, but people dug
under it and tried to chip off the designs, proba-
bly to sell them; they only succeeded in shatter-
ing and destroying many precious paintings. Re-
cently, the corporation erected a new and much
stronger barrier, so further destruction, it is
hoped, will be prevented.

A major goal of the Contisuyu Program will
be to increase public awareness and appreciation
of the importance of archeological remains. By
building local pride, we seek to prevent the de-
struction of more of Moquegua's patrimony.

A major step forward in unravelling the
mysteries of Moquegua has been the formation
of the Contisuyu Program. Not only does the
program provide necessary finance, it also cre-
ates official Peruvian enthusiasm by virtue of the
fact that it owes its existence to the concern
shown by a responsibly minded large American
corporation. It is with great anticipation that
Field Museum, together with our Peruvian col-
leagues, looks forward to the enormous task of
preserving, studying, and developing the cul-
tural patrimony of the Valley of Moquegua,
and to bringing into focus the civilizations of
Contisuyu. D

Extremely dry
conditions in
Moquegua desert have
preserved a wide range
of perishable remains,
including this wooden
spoon handle. Design
is carved in Tiwanaku
style (ca. A.D. 500) and
depicts two condor
heads (at top), cactus
flower (top center), and
unidentified plant
form.

ANCIENT AIR BREATHERS

b;^ w. D. Ian Rolfe

Burgess shale fossil
Opabinia may be an
early descendant of the
segmented animals
from which annelid
worms (such as the
earthworm) and ar-
thropods were derived.
This reconstruction
provoked laughter
when first shown at a
normally sober, scien-
tific meeting — a trib-
ute to the animal's
unique combination of
characters. (After
Whittington)

Most paleontologists would still agree with
Darwin that "the whole science of geology
loses glory from the extreme imperfection of the
record." Yet, now and again a new find of fossils
is made which reminds us of what we are miss-
ing— another window onto the past is opened.

The most famous of these finds is the
Burgess Shale (530 million years old) of British
Columbia, with its multitude of soft-bodied
forms. An international research team led by H.
B. Whittington, of Cambridge University, has
shown that there is still much that can be learned
from these fossils, discovered in 1908. Or the
more local, but scarcely less famous, Mazon
Creek Pennsylvanian biota (300 million years
old) of Illinois, with its 800 or so different animal
and plant fossils, mostly still unique to Illinois.
These are chance occurrences of a spectacular
kind.

No less remarkable, however, may be finds
made by workers patiently processing rock in
their laboratories. One thinks of the beautiful
Permian silicified brachiopods recovered by G.
Arthur Cooper and his co-workers at the Smith-
sonian Institution, by acid digestion of blocks
of the Glass Mountains, Texas. Or the minute,
crystal-clear copepod crustaceans and spiders
dissolved from concretions in the Mojave Desert
by Alison Palmer. We take for granted the rou-
tine recovery of large masses of often exquisitely
preserved spores with their resistant sporopol-
lenin coats.

Yet, few geologists are prepared to take the
risk of expending vast effort in processing large
volumes of rocks on the off-chance that they
might contain some new fossils. The German

geologist Erich Malzahn was willing to take
such a chance: by washing many tons of Permian
marl, he recovered a few, minute, exquisitely
pyritized crustaceans of groups previously un-
known as fossils. Klaus Miiller, of Bonn Univer-
sity, has suggested that such occurrences are not
as few and far between as we tend to think; we
just do not bother to look for them adequately.
Miiller should know, since in the course of dis-
solving phosphatized water fleas from Swedish
Cambrian limestones, 510 million years old, he
noticed that a few had soft parts attached to
them. By carefully dissolving less than nine
pounds of the rock he was able to recover
thousands of shells, 400 of them with their soft
parts and multisegmented limbs preserved in-
tact.

Knowledge of life on ancient land surfaces is
much harder to come by. This is partly for the
obvious reason that land animals have to end up
in a water-laid sediment before they can be found
as fossils — a rather unlikely event. Yet one of
these remarkable chance finds has just been
made by paleobotanists Pat M. Bonamo and
Doug Grierson of the State University of New
York at Binghamton.

Whilst etching out fossil plants from the

W. D. Ian Rolfe was recently at Field Museum under the
Department of Geology's Visiting Scientist Program, inves-
tigating pod-shrimps of Mazon Creek, Illinois, and Mecca
shale, of Indiana; he also initiated the work on Devonian
microarthropods of New York, discussed in this article. Rolfe
has returned to his position as deputy director of the Hunte-
rian Museum, University of Glasgow.

middle Devonian (380 million years old)
mudstones of Gilboa, New York, to use their
own words, "We made an extremely exciting and
fortuitous discovery. While we were examining a
preparation with the dissecting microscope we
found an almost complete small arthropod,
swaying gently in the water filling a depression
left by the acid removal of the rock matrix, the
tips of its legs being still embedded in the un-
etched rock. We were able to remove it with
cephalothorax and abdomen still intact." Since
then, they have found more specimens, most of
them fragmentary.

That first animal Bonamo and Grierson
found is a trigonotarbid arachnid — a group of
daddy longlegs-like animals, extinct since the
Pennsylvanian. The finest details seen on any
fossil arthropod can be seen on this species —
including the first slit sense organs — the "strain
gauges" which detect minute deformations in
arachnid exoskeletons. These structures, only a
few thousandths of a millimeter in length, were
spotted by Field Museum's John Kethley, associ-
ate curator of entomology. In an equally striking
specimen were the poison fangs of what was
obviously a centipede. Ralph Crabill, the senior
U. S. worker on centipedes, was excited to find
that this most closely resembles a living form on
which he had worked for many years — Cratero-
stigmuS) known today only from New Zealand's
South Island and Tasmania. He could state with

New trigonotarbid arachnid, 2 mm long (1/12 inch), from the
Middle Devonian (380 million years old) of Gilboa, New
York. It closely resembles animals of similar age from Rhynie,
Scotland, and Aiken, West Germany. (Photo courtesy Pat
M. Bonamo and D. Grierson)

Phosphatized ostracode (water flea), 0.2 mm long, acid-
etched from Upper Cambrian (510 million years old) lime-
stone in Sweden. (Photo courtesy ofK.J. Miiller)

^^^^H

*»^-

^■■H^^M

Le^ tip ofGilhoa, N.Y.
trigonotarbid, show-
ing well preserved
spurs , and hairs still
set in sockets. (Photo
courtesy Pat M.
Bonamoand
D. Grierson)

Poison fimgs of the oldest known centipede, from 380
million-vear-old rocks ofGilboa, N.Y. They most closely
resemble Craterostigmus — known today only from New
Zealand and Thsmania. (Photo courtesy Pat M. Bonamo
and D. Grierson)

authority that this could not belong to any cen-
tipede living in North America today. An impor-
tant point, since other authorities had begun to
question whether these acid residues were not
simply contaminants — minute scraps of arthro-
pod that had, perhaps, fallen out of a crack in
the ceiling.

This sort of thing had happened before —
supposed outer-space spores found in the
Orgeuil meteorite proved to be only ragwort pol-
len contaminants that had survived superficial
cleaning of the meteorite. The possibility of such
contamination was ruled out here by the pres-
ence of trigonotarbid, and also by the extreme
flatness of the materials — only a few thou-
sandths of a millimeter thick: it was difficult to

imagine how such Recent contaminants had got
so squashed, unless they really had been en-
tombed in a column of rock, originally miles
thick. As more groups were recognized, it be-
came clear that the fossils belonged to groups
that had long been thought to be primitive. That
was true oi Craterostigmus, and of the single mite
specimen recovered. Identification of mites is
very much a matter for specialists, and John
Kethley recognized that this was one of the
oribatid mites in which Roy Norton, of the S. U.
N. Y. College of Environmental Science and For-
estry, was expert. Norton was able to compare it
with living ctenacarids, a family of Palaeosomata
which, as the name suggests, had long been con-
sidered among the most ancient of mites.

Other animals are represented by the small-
est of fragments, and one needs to enlist the help
of many specialists in order to run them down.
Two such experts. Otto Kraus in Hamburg and
Bill Shear of Hampden-Sydney College, Vir-
ginia, independently identified one scrap as the
tip of the leg of a tarantulalike arachnid. These
animals have a very patchy distribution at the
present day, suggesting a former much wider,
tropical- subtropical distribution. Fossils had
been known from the Carboniferous of Mazon
Creek, as well as from Europe, but once again
this find was much older than any hitherto.

The work of identifying the fragments —
most of them less than a millimeter across —
continues. E. Laidlaw Smith, of the California
Academy of Sciences, has identified one perfo-
rated plate as a possible machilid — a silverfish,
long thought to be primitive, which would make
them the earliest true insects. It will take a long
while, and probably much more etching out of
material, before a complete picture of the ancient
air-breathers of Gilboa can be built up.

Land fossils of this age are very rare, and
known from only two other localities in the
world: Scotland and Germany. The first of these
finds was made only in the 1920s, when the
tough, splintery Rhynie Chert of Aberdeenshire,
Scotland, was found to contain not only some of
the earliest land plants, but also a whole fauna of
minute arthropods. This fauna comprises sev-
eral minute mites, a shrimp resembling the living
fairy shrimp, a possible spider, a springtail insect
(of which the spring organ has just been discov-
ered) and some trigonotarbid arachnids very like
the Gilboa beast. These animals are exquisitely
preserved in the clear silica of the chert, since
they were killed and petrified in situ when an
ancient peat bog was inundated with hot-spring

waters.

Paleobotarust A. G. Lyon, then of Cardiff
University, was sectioning some of the chert to
study the plants in detail when he was startled to

see some finely laminated structures inside the
abdomen of one of the arachnids. He recognized
these as lung-books — the structures by which
many land arthropods breathe today. These are
the oldest, and remain the only fossil, lung-
books known, and really confirm that these ani-
mals were air-breathers, as had been deduced
from their general resemblance to living spiders
and their kin.

A second find of these Devonian land forms
was made only in the 1960s at Aiken, on the River
Mosel, in Germany. The fossils are not so spec-
tacularly preserved as at Rhynie and Gilboa, but
a similar trigonotarbid was recognized and de-
scribed by the late Leif St0rmer of Oslo Univer-
sity, a leading and inspiring worker on early
fossil arthropods since the 1930s. This deposit
probably formed in a lagoon, and the presence of
many sea scorpions, some of them possibly am-
phibious, at this locality suggests the land fossils
were washed in from a nearby shore. Also pres-
ent is Eoarthropleura — the dawn Arthropleura —
a possible ancestor of those giant, six-foot-long
millipedelike animals known from Mazon Creek.

The similarity of the undoubtedly terrestrial
trigonotarbid arachnids of Gilboa to those of
Rhynie and Aiken raises several interesting
points about these early air-breathers. First of all,
they were even then so well developed and spe-
cialized that biologists think they must have
evolved onto land long before the Devonian.
When the original ancestor, or ancestors, of mil-
hpedes, centipedes, and insects left the sea to hit
land, it (or they) probably diversified rapidly

into the many different types of land arthropods.

Maps of the ancient geographies of those
times, recently compiled by workers at the Uni-
versity of Chicago, show a chain of continental
fragments, scattered around the globe in low
tropical latitudes. Our ancestral trigonotarbid
must therefore have emerged onto either one of
these land masses — Laurentia or Baltica (see
maps) — and then spread to the other after these
continental plates collided in the late Silurian/
early Devonian, 400 million years ago, to form
the larger continent of Laurussia. The present-
day distribution of close relatives of the Gilboa
air-breathers shows that further major expan-
sion of their range must have occurred — and the
recent discovery by Mario Hiinicken, of Cordoba
University, of a giant fossil spider with a body
thirteen inches long and a leg span of almost two
feet, in the Carboniferous of Argentina, tells us
that at least some of these territorial gains had
been made by the Pennsylvanian, 280 million
years ago. The maps also show that Laurussia,
bearing its cargo of Gilboa arachnids, had im-

Above: Fossil tamn-
tulid claw (OS mm
long) from Gilboa,
N.Y. (Photo courtesy
PatM.BonamoandD.
Grierson.) Below: The
living tarantulid
Charinus, of Africa.
(AfterMillot) 15

Maps of ancient geographies, showing that the three known sites of the oldest terrestrial faunas are confined to the on.
Laurussian plate, in Devonian times (380 million years ago). (After Scotese et al, © 1979, The University of Chicago)

pacted with the southern hemisphere plate
known as Gondwana just before this time, allow-
ing the arachnids to spread far and wide, ulti-
mately to reach the places that their descendants
inhabit, often as relict faunas.

If this is a true account of events, it enables
us to make an intriguing prediction, testable by
future, worldwide collecting: terrestrial arachnids

older than the Carboniferous should not be found out-
side the Laurussian plate. In other words, none
should occur in Gondwana rocks — or in Kazakh-
starua, China, or Siberia, for that matter, since
such land animals could not cross the sea barriers
that separated those former continental plates. It
will be interesting to see how long this prediction
can survive. D

Latin American
Neighbors Day

Dia de los Vecinos
Latinoamericanos

Sunday, January 31
12 noon-4:00 pm

Come celebrate Latin American Neighbors Day,
Sundayjanuary 31, from 12 noon to 4:00 pm at Field
Museum. Enjoy tours, lectures, touchable exhibits, craft
projects, games, and dance performances that highlight
the cultures of Mexico, Central and South America.

"Nuevo Ideal" offers two half-hour dance perform-
ances at 1:30 pm and 3:30 pm in Stanley Field Hall. Sixteen
dancers (ages 7-17) perform lively folk dances from the
many states of Mexico: Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, Tamaulipas,
and Jalisco. The featured dances include shotis (polkas),
the bamba, the zapateado, la tortuga, pinotpa nacional
and uapango (the cowgirl dance). "Nuevo Ideal" per-
forms under the direction of Ophelia Solano. Tours of the
Latin American halls are offered in English and Spanish.
Explore "The World of the Aztecs" ("£/ Mundo de los
Aztecas"'), "Mesoamerican Civilization," and "Textiles of
Ancient Mexico." Watch a pottery demonstration that rep-
licates traditional Indian handbuilding techniques.

Children can enjoy tours scheduledjust for them
— "Exploring the New World" and "Animals of South
America" (in English and Spanish) . After the "Animals"
tour, children can make an animal baby out of clay to take
home. Young people can play pinata, learn to grind corn
using the mano and metate, make Ojos de Dios ("God's
Eyes") — a symbol of peace and happiness — and spin
wool into yarn using a drop spindle. A special Discovery
Room full of touchable exhibits relating to life in Mexico
will provide fun for the whole family. Children can try on
clothes from Mexico, create a mola design out of colored
paper, make paper flowers and listen to Mexican folktales
in English and Spanish.

There is a special performance by the Clemente
Steel Band of Roberto Clemente High School at 2:45
p.m. in Stanley Field Hall. Fifteen musicians will per-
form this delightful music on 24 steel drums.

Dr. Alan Kolata, visiting assistant curator of Andean
archeology, presents an illustrated lecture on "The Lords
of Tiwanaku" at 2:00 pm in James Simpson Theatre on
the ground floor (at the Museum's West Entrance). He
explores the evolution of Tiwanaku, one of the greatest
native states of the ancient Americas, located near Lake
Titicaca in what is now Bolivia. He details the economic,
political, and religious universe of the metropolis of
Tiwanaku and the Andean empire it controlled from
A.D.200toA.D.1000.

An illustrated lecture on "Fossil Mammals of South
America" is offered at 1:00 pm in Lecture Hall I on the
Ground Floor (at the Museum's West Entrance) by Dr.
Larry Marshall, visiting assistant curator of fossil mam-
mals. South America was an isolated island continent for
most of the last 65 million years. The animals
evolved there in a world all their ow^n. Meet Megatherium ,
the giant ground sloth, and the armored glyptodont, ex-
tinct cousin of today's armadillo. After the lecture, you
can see the skeletons of these prehistoric animals on dis-
play in Hall 38.

All events are free with admission to the Museum.
A detailed schedule (in English and Spanish) is available
after January 15. Please send a self-addressed, stamped
envelope to receive the advance schedule. Schedules are
available at Museum entrances on the day of the event.

This program is partially funded by the Illinois Arts
Council. 17

Egypi

Reju

Hall J, the Museum's world-faf
lije with the installation of tifi
culture, the opening of the tomb
exhibit, and the 'renovation' o
viewers may now appreciate thi
arrival of a magnificent, modi
Thebes [on long-term loan from
out the rejuvenation of Hall J
Museum's visitors.

18 I

Case 12: Egyptian p
pottery-mahng.

The tomb chapel o
showing the fake di

Field Museum Tours for Members

The Ancient Capitals of China

June 6-28

This unique itinerary, rarely granted by the Chinese au-
thorities, includes the most significant sites of early Imperial
China and will give an opportunity to explore in depth the
civilization which characterized one of the oldest and longest-
lived societies on earth. We will have the opportunity to
observe the emergence of this remarkable culture and its de-
velopment to a level which surpassed its contemporaries in the
Western World.

June 6: Departure from Chicago to San Francisco in time for
evening briefing.

June 7: Departure via Japan Airlines for flight to Tokyo.
June 8: Afternoon arrival in Tokyo; overnight at Nikko Narita
Hotel.

June 9: Flight to Peking, where we will spend 4 days, visiting
Imperial Palace, Temple of Heaven, Tien-an Square, and the
antique shop district; Ming emperor tombs, the Great Wall,
the Summer Palace, and the National Museum.
June 13: Overnight train ride to Zhengzhou, capital of Henan
Province, where we'll spend 3 days; in addition to sight-seeing,
we can rise early to participate in tai chi exercise groups in the
People's Park.

June 16: A short, train ride takes us east to Kaifeng, where we'll
spend 2 days. The city is rarely visited by tourists; it's just at the
beginning of modernization, and we'll get a wonderful feeling
of Old China.

June 18: Two days in Luoyang, one of the oldest centers of
Chinese culture.

June 20: A westward train ride takes us to Xian, our home for 4
days. This is where the fabulous clay horses and warriors of
the "Great Bronze Age of China" exhibit were discovered.
June 24: We'll travel by air to Shanghai, where we will spend
four days, including a one-day side trip to Souchou, silk-
manufacturing center.

June 27: To Tokyo again, for a one-night stay before flying back
to the States.

At a small additional cost, you may stay longer in Japan or
in Hawaii, at completion of the China tour.

Our tour leader is Mr. Phillip H. Woodruff, Ph.D. candi-
date in Chinese history at the University of Chicago. This is Mr.
Woodruffs third time as a Field Museum China tour leader
and his fourth visit to that country in two years. Cost of the
tour is $3,850 (per person, double occupancy).

Alaska Native Culture Tour

June 19-July 1

This 13-day tour begins with a flight from Seattle to Sitka,
Alaska, where we wall spend two days and nights viewing old
Russian settlement buildings, Sheldon Jackson Museum, and
National Park Service exhibits. Our third, fourth, and fifth
nights will be aboard two yachts, which will take us to Admi-
ralty Island. We will see Tenakee Hot Springs, the native vil-
lages of Angoon and Hoonah, and make a tour of Glacier Bay.

Sightseeing in Juneau and its environs will be our activity
during the next two days, followed by a day and night in
Anchorage and a visit by motorcoach to Denali National Park
(formerly McKinley National Park), where we will enjoy the
spectacular scenery and view wildlife, spending two nights
there. A day and a night in Kotzebue, a day in Nome, and a
final day in Anchorage will round out the tour.

All hotel accommodations will be first class; the two
yachts will accommodate 16 and 10 persons, respectively. Tour
rates to be announced.

Coral Reef Biology and Natural History
Explorations in the Western Caribbean

June 22-Jufy 11

The richness of marine life and the beauty of the offshore reefs
and islands of Belize and Honduras are unsurpassed in the
Atlantic tropics. Field Museum's 20-day tour of this region
offers a unique opportunity to explore and study tropical
marine and terrestrial ecosystems and, if desired, to earn uni-
versity credit for doing so. Leading the tour will be three
professional marine biologists, each with considerable field
work in the Gulf of Honduras and well acquainted with the
local flora and fauna.

Last Can for Baja!

If you are looking for a place in the sun, but want something
more than a pretty beach, then come with us for a real
adventure. We have just two spaces left for our whale-watching
erpedition to Baja California scheduled to depart injustafew
weeks . . . February 6.

Chinese scholar learns his "A-B-Cs."

If you wish additional details for any tour or
would like to he placed on a special mailing list,
please call Dorothy Roder, Tours manager, at
3ZZ-886Z, or write Field Museum Tours,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL
60605.

g^'^' . .I'Algfg-. j..'j>.;i».'ALi -

teresting algae of this isolated, untouched coral-reef. Daily
scuba diving is available. The 50-foot motor sloop Christmas
Bird will take us to and from the reef, where we will stay at
Lomont's Glovers Reef Village resort.

Our stay at Glovers will be followed by a four-day in-
depth exploration of the central Belize mainland, including
rain forests, the famed Blue Hole on the Hummingbird High-
way, a stay at the Blancanaeux Lodge atop Mountain Pine
Ridge, a visit to Rio Frio Cave and the Thousand Foot Falls, and
exploration of Mayan ruins at Xunantunich. Aiding us for the
four days will be Belize resident Dora Weyer, internationally
known naturalist and expert on bird identification.

We will then stay five days at Roatan, one of the Bay
Islands, where steep cliffs, rocky shores, and sandy beaches
and associated wildlife provide a sharp contrast to the Glovers
atoll environment. At Anthony's Key Resort, our Roatan home,
first class accommodations, scuba facilities, fantastic sport
fishing, tennis, etc., and superlative surroundings will add to
our enjoyment. The tour will end with a day at San Pedro Sula,
on the mainland, with sight-seeing and shopping or a tour to
Mayan ruins at Copan.

Leading the tour will be Dr. Robert Karl Johnson, curator
of fishes and chairman of Field Museum's Department of Zool-
ogy; Dr. David W. Greenfield, research associate in the
Museum's Division of Fishes and professor of biological sci-
ences at Northern Illinois University (NIU), and Dr. Norman A.
Engstrom, associate professor of biological sciences at North-
ern Illinois University. Three semester hours of undergraduate
or graduate credit in biological sciences are available from NIU
to tour participants. The tour will be limited to 14 partici-
pants. Rate to be announced.

Motor sloop Christmas Bird at Glovers Reef

Grand Canyon Adventure

May 22-30

An exciting 280-mile cruise down the Colorado River by
motorized rubber raft, camping outdoors under the stars. Dr.
Bertram Woodland, curator of petrology, will lead the tour.
Group limited to 25. Details to be announced.

Galapagos tour cruise ship, M.V. Buccaneer, in background; shorebird
hobnobs with iguanas.

Ecuador and the Galapagos

March 11-25

The Galapagos Islands affect our imagination like no other
place on earth. Field Museum is pleased to offer its members
an opportunity to visit this remote archijjelago under the ex-
pert guidance of Dr. John W. Fitzpa trick, associate curator and
head, Division of Birds. If you are a "birder" or a "photog-
rapher" this tour is a Utopia.

We'll see 500-pound tortoises, ferocious-looking land
iguanas that eat cactus flowers, marine iguanas which are
superb divers, penguins, flightless cormorants, colonies of sea
lions and fur seals, and many other exotic and unique birds,
mammals, and reptiles. The plant life, with 40-foot cacti in
coastal deserts and dense rain forests in the mountains, is
equally interesting.

In addition to the unique sightseeing and learning oppor-
tunities on the cruise, we will spend four nights in Quito,
Ecuador, where we'll enjoy old world ambience, along with the
color of the centuries-old Indian market and villages of
Latacunga and Ambato — we'll overnight in Ambato. Our
transfer from Quito to Guayaquil will give us a chance to see
the country's remarkable scenery. Special attention will be paid
to the unique bird life.

Our cruise ship, the 2,200-ton M.V. Buccaneer, meets the
highest safety requirements. Originally designed to carry 250
passengers, it was refurbished in the United States in 1976 to
carry only 90, and has recently been again refurbished. All
cabins are outside and are equipped with complete private
bath. The Buccaneer offers a comfortable, informal cruising
environment. Although we'll be in the tropics, it will never be
unpleasantly hot because of the cooling effect of the Humboldt
Current.

The price is $3,550 (per person, double occupancy). We
hope you will join us in one of the greatest adventures in travel.

Coming up.

Australia Ibur

August 23-September 12

Kenya Tour

(with optional extension to Seychelles)
September 11-October 1

Learning Museum continues with

Tribes; Traditions; and Totem Poles:
The Northwest Coast Achievement

fav Anthony Pfeiffer ,^>to.
Project Coordinator %^

Made possible by a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities , a federal agency

Cmlization has its Seven Wonders, all created by
people who practiced agriculture, and all
created in the last 10,000 years — less thanl percent
of the time that humanlike creatures have existed.
What are the wonders of 99 percent of human evolu-
tion? What are the hunting and gathering accom-
plishments which shaped human-kind? Among the
most wondrous of these were the achievements of
natives of the Northwest Coast of North America.
Northwest Coast cultures were the greatest ever
nurtured by hunting and gathering systems — as
opposed to agriculture.

It is hard to imagine life without agriculture
and domesticated animals. In almost all regions,
hunters and gatherers roamed large territories in
small bands, taking advantage of the seasonal
availability of plants and animals. They knew their
lands. Knowledge of what, where, and when
foodstuffs could be found was passed on, generation
to generation. It was a good life, requiring pjerhaps
eight hours' labor a week to satisfy basic needs,
though people had to keep moving in a perpetual
restless following of food. They couldn't own more
than they could carry. But this pattern of hunt-
ing and gathering did not prevail in the
Northwest Coast. It was an unusually
generous environment.

Top of wooden wand carved to represent a witch spirit. Used
by Alaskan Tlingit shaman in ceremony.

Above: Aleut children pose uncertainly for Field Museum
photographer Charles Carpenter at St. Louis, Missouri,
Exposition, in 1904.

Right: Decaying totem pole at Gitksan, British Columbia,
photographed in 1977 by Ron Testa, Field Museum photog-
rapher. Does the disintegrating pole symbolize the fate of
Native Northwest Coast traditions?

Below: Map shoivs ranges of many of the Northwest Coast
tribes discussed in the Learning Museum Program. Artistic
heritage of Alaska will be represented by Ronald and Joseph
Senungetuk in April 18 Contemporary Arts Symposium;
Bill Reid and Robert Davidson will represent the Haidan
tradition; Joe David will represent the Nootkan, or West
Coast People.

BRITISH COLUMBIA '''*?S>^yi.2^i.:-' ■"""' A. _'-

ETMNOt-OGICAL MAP OF

SOWHEASTERN ALASIWV

^^^,

■^^

,1.. ,-\^^j^

^4?*^,

^i^

In 1899, Field Museum

zoobgist Daniel G.

Elliott photographed

this deserted Tlingit

village of Cash, Cape

Fox, Alaska, notable

here for its many

totem poles.

Temperate rain forests contained an abun-
dance of plant and animal life, rivers teemed with
fish, and the adjacent sea hid virtually infinite num-
bers of shellfish and other edibles. Everywhere one
turned there was food, much of it available
throughout the year. It was as close to an agricul-
tural lifestyle as one could get by living off the land.
Many aspects of social and cultural advancement
normally associated with agriculture were de-
veloped. Full-time artists, religious practitioners,
craftsjjeople, and other specialists were supported
by the wealth of food. Complex systems of tribal
government regulated relatively large numbers of
people. War was waged.

Lavish resources were not the whole story be-
hind the remarkably advanced Northwest Coast

NEH Learning Museum at Field Museum

The NEH Learning Museum program is a
three-year sequence of learning opportunities
Jbcused on the Museum 's outstanding exhibits
and collections and designed to give partici-
pants an opportunity to explore a subject in
depth. Each unit of study consists of one or
more special events, a lecture course, and a
seminar for advance work. Special events are
lectures by renowned authorities or interpre-
tive performances and demonstrations.
Course members receive an annotated bibliog-
raphy, a specially developed guide to pertinent
Museum exhibits, and study notes for related
special events. In-depth, small group semi-
nars allow more direct contact with faculty
and with Museum collections.

societies. A sophisticated material culture fashioned
in a tradition of Stone Age technology was developed
to get food and for general living comfort. Wood-
working produced everything from totem poles, to
homes, to many kinds of canoe. Harpoons were
armed with special-purpwse tips made of bone or
flint, and their shape depjended on the kind of
quarry being sought. Fish and other meat was
smoke-dried for future use.

One would not think that inhabitants of this
richly endowed environment had to worry about the
future. The coastline stretched 1,000 miles — from
southeastern Alaska to the state of Washington, as
the crow flies. If one followed the coast as it in-
dented inland or jutted into the sea, it could be
considered 12,000 miles long. Stretched along this
coast and sandw^iched between the sea and a tower-
ing mountain range were a bewilderingly diverse
group of unique native cultures. Any particular cul-
ture might suddenly be struck destitute in spite of
nature's normal endowment of plenty. Local rains
could fail. The sea could rise up to inundate the
villages or recede to turn life-giving beds of shellfish
into barren rock. Any number of environmental
perturbations could and did periodically transform
a hunting-and-gathering paradise into hell-on-
earth.

Periodic disasters may have been harder on the
Northwest Coast peoples than on other hunters and
gatherers. Typical hunters and gatherers simply
pack up and leave the scene of trouble. Northwest
Coast peoples could not easily move. They had
elaborate and permanent homes. They lived in large
villages. They were surrounded by other settled
neighbors, people who would resist territorial in-
cursions. In short, although they lived by a
hunting-and-gathering economy they were tied to

an area for better or for worse. Some scientists think
that religious gatherings as well as extensive trade
networks up and down the coast protected against
local disasters. Such ceremonies served to distribute
food and wealth from the haves to the have-nots.
Whether or not the dramatic rituals can be ex-
plained so functionally, it is clear that science is just
beginning to understand the dynamics of a system
that has radically changed.

Much of the material grandeur of the Native
Northwest Coast has endured to this day. Field
Museum garnered many spectacular artifacts in the
late 1800s and the early 1900s. Since these times the
Museum has been renowned for the quality of its
Northwest Coast collections. This spring, after
do5sens of people have worked for nearly five years
at a cost of millions of dollars, Field Museum's
newest permanent exhibition, "Maritime Peoples of
the Arctic and Northwest Coast," opens. The Learn-
ing Museum course — Tribes, Traditions, and Totem
Poles — is offered as a prelude to this historic open-
ing.

Tribes, Traditions, and Totem Poles explores
the origins and flourishing of Northwest Coast cul-
tures. Archeological evidence and native traditions
are juxtaposed to shed light on where the peoples
came from and when. Varied coastal habitats are
discussed and the seemingly lush uniformity is
broken into distinct ecological zones, each posing

different challenges for human settlers. The tech-
nologies of survival and art are shown. Trading,
raiding, and huge feasts are seen as adaptations to a
changing environment. Family life, day-to-day soci-
ety, and activities involving the whole tribe are dis-
cussed. Finally, shamans, secret societies, super-
natural presences, and the spiritual side of coastal
life are explored. Details of the course are available
in the Winter, 1982 Courses for Adults brochure.

In conjunction with studying Northwest Coast
peoples. Members and nonmembers alike are in-
vited to attend a Symposium on Contemporary Arts,
April 18, 1982. "Echoes of the Past, Tides of Change"
presents four artists who have rescued their respec-
tive heritage and are taking them forward. Their
work is guided by the past but not determined by it.
Robert Davidson, for example, has expanded the
boundaries of Haida style by using circular, as op-
posed to boxlike, forms, and through other innova-
tions. The artists discuss not only their unique con-
tributions but the future of the arts as well. As Bill
Reid, moderator, puts the issue, "just because a few
people are doing second-rate silkscreens doesn't
mean the old traditions are alive." Is the resurgence
of Northwest Coast art a renaissance or is it a fleet-
ing moment based on the work of just a few? Are we
seeing a rebirth or slow death? Details of the sym-
posium are featured in the April Calendar of
Events. D

Index to Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin , Volume 53 (1981)

Articles

Ancient Egypt: Mummies, Magic, and Love: Learning

Museum Program, by Anthony Pfeiffer: Mar 12
Argentine Connection, The, by Larry Marshall: May 16
Baja Circumnavigated, by Robert K. Johnson: Oct 18
Canoes of the Maritime Peoples of the Northwest Coast, by

Ronald L. Weber: Oct. 12
Curatorial Legacy, A: Six Zoologists Dedicate 226 Years'

Service to the Field Museum of Natural History, by Alan

Solem: Jan 6
Edward E. Ayer and W. M. Flinders Petrie: 'Founding

Fathers' of the Egyptian Collection, by Judith Cottle:
Nov 33
Egypt in 1903: Travel Notes of Henry Isaac Hart, by Gerda

Frank: J/A 20
Eskimo and Indian Settlements in Southwestern Alaska, 1902:

A Photographic Record, by James W. VanStone: June 4
Farrington's Folly?, by Edward Olsen: June 3
Field Musuem, The: Spotlight on the Collections, by

Matthew H. Nitecki: Part I (introduction and

Anthropology): Feb 18, // (Geology): March 6, ///

(Zoology); April 6, IV (Botany): May 10
Frasnian-Famennian Extinctions, The: A Search for

Extraterrestrial Causes, by George H. McGhee, Jr. ; J/A 3
Giovanni Belzoni: King of the Tomb Robbers, by Peter

Gayford: Sept 28
Hopi as they Were, The, by Alice Schlegel: June 16
Hummingbirds, by Alex Hiam: Sept 12
In the Shadow of the Pyramid: An Introduction to the Exhibit,

by Donald Whitcomb: Nov 3
Kimberley Snail Hunt Again!, by Alan Solem: Mar 18
Kohlman Amber Collection, The: A Stained Glass Window to

the Past, by Gene Kritsky: J/A 14
Lungfishes — Alive and Extinct, by K. S. W. Campbell:

Sept 3
North American Challengers of the Southwest, by Anthony
Pfeiffer and Donald McVicker; May 4

Paintings from the Tomb of Nakht at Thebes, by William J.

Murnane: Nov 13
Planned Giving: A Program to Augment Field Musuem's

Endowment Fund, by Clifford Buzard: Sept 8
Predynastic Egypt, by Peter Lacovara: Nov 7
Receptaculitids: Ancient Organisms Studied by Visiting

Scientist, by Matthew H. Nitecki; April 21
Rugs of the Orient: Threads of Time, by Anthony Pfeiffer:

Oct 4
Searching for Meteorites: The Press Release Strategy, by Paul

Sipiera: Oct 8
Through A Missionary's Eyes: Photo-Documentation of

Ingalik Indian Life, 1893-1925, by James VanStone; Feb 4
Tipi, The: A Cultural Interpretation of Its Design, by Terry

Strauss: April 14
Tobacco and Pipe Use Among the Indians of the Northwest

Coast, by Daniel J. Joyce; Oct 14
Tomb Chapels of Netjer-user and Unis-ankh, The, by Bruce

Williams: Nov 26
Venetians and Minoans: A Voyage of Discovery, by Dorwld

Whitcomb; Jan 15
West African Art: Power and Spirit, by Anthony Pfeiffer;

Jan 26
Whale of a Tale, A, by Larry G. Marshall; June 12
William Henry Jackson: Historian with a Third Eye, by

Audrey Hitler; J/A 6

Authors

Buzard, Clifford; Planned Giving, Sept 8

Campbell, K.S. W.: Lungfishes — Alive and Extinct, Sept 3

Cottle, Judith: Edward E. Ayer and W.M.F. Petrie, Nov 30

Frank, Gerda: Egypt in 1903, J/A 20

Gayford, Peter: Giovanni Belzoni, Sept 28

Hiam, Alex; Hummingbirds, Sept 12

Hiller, Audrey: William Henry Jackson, J/A 6

Johnson, Robert K. : Baja Circumtmvigated, Oct 18

Joyce, Daniel J. ; Tobacco and Pipe Use Among the Indians of

the Northwest Coast, Oct 14
Kritsky, Gene: The Kohlman Amber Collection, J/A 14
Lacovara, Peter: Predyrmstic Egypt, Nov 7
Marshall, Larry G.: The Argentine Connection , May 16

_, : A Whale of A Tale: June 12

McGhee, George H.: The Frasnian-Famennian

Extinctions, J/A 3
McVicker, Donald: North American Challengers of the

Southwest (with A. Pfeiffer), May 4
Murnane, William J. ; Paintings from the Tomb of Nakht at

Thebes, Nov 13
Nitecki, Matthew H.: The Field Musuem: Spotlight on the

Collections, Part I, Feb 18; Parf //, Mar 6; Part III, April 6;

Parf IV, May 10

: Receptaculitids, April 21

Olsen, Edward; Farrington's Folly? , June 3
Pfeiffer, Anthony: West African Art: Power and Spirit,
Jan 26

: Ancient Egypt, March 12

North American Challengers of the Southwest,

May 4

: Rugs of the Orient, Oct 4

Schlegel, Alice: The Hopi as They Were, June 16
Sipiera, Paul; Searching for Meteorites, Oct 8
Solem, Alan; A Curatorial Legacy, Jan 6

: Kimberly Snail Hunt Again!, Mar 18

Strauss, Terry: The Tipi, April 14

VanStone, James: Through a Missionary's Eyes, Feb 4

: Eskimo and Indian Settlements in Soulhvxstem

Alaska, 1902, June 4
Weber, Ronald L.; Canoes of the Maritime Peoples of the

Northwest Coast, Oct 12
Whitcomb, Donald: Venetians and Minoans: A Voyage of

Discovery, ]anl5

: In the Shadow of the Pyramid, Nov3

Williams, Bruce: The Tomb Chapels of Netjer-user and 25

Unis-ankh, Nov 26 >

INDEX

Continued from p. 25

Subjects

Abendroth, H.: Ap4
Acheulian stone-working: Ap

12
Adelman, W.: Mr 4
Afro-Blue; Jan 29, F 3
alligator meat sale: June 10
amber, Baltic: J/A 15
Anazazi Pueblo culture: May 5
Anthropology, Dep't of: F 20
anthropology course: Mr 3
anthropology films: S 17
Anvik, AK: F 4
armadillo: May 2
asbestos: Mr 27
AsUn, F.:Mrl9
Aslin,J.:Mrl9
Aubrey, J: Mr4
Auffenberg, W.: Mr 3
awlbill, fiery-tailed: A 21
Ayer, E.E.:S8, N33
babirusa exhibit: Mr 17
Bacubirito meteorite: June 27
Baja California: 0 18
Baker: G.R.:F 16
Bald Eagle Days: Jan 31
Baltic amber: J/A 15
Barnes, Judge R. M. : AP 6
Bayalis, J.: Ap4
Beagle: June 12
bearberry: O 2
beard-tongue: S 14
bee-balm: S 24
Bering, v.: 0 14
Belka, M.:Jan6
BeLzoni, G. B.:S28
Berliner, P: F 3
Bernhardt, U.:Jan4
biotelemetrv: Mr 11
bird feed: F'17
bird pests: Jan 32
Blake, E. R.:Ap7
Blaschke, F.:F20
blenny, oyster: F 14
Bolivar Trough: May 18
booby, blue-footed: O 21
Botany, Dep't of: May 10
Boyd, W. L.:Myl4, S6, 0 3
Brown, B: Jan6
Bruce, R.E.: Jan 10
Brudd, R.;02
buckeye tree: S 14
buckwheat, wild: June 18
Burger, W.: May 11
Bushman: Mr 17
Calhoun, L.: Apl3
Callahan, G.:0 21
Camacho, H: June 12
camaenid snails: Mr 18
Campbell, K.S.W.:S 7
canoes of NW Coast: 0 12
Canty, V: Jan6
Canyon Diablo meteorite; O 9
Cape Sounian: Jan 19
capybara; May 21
carpets: O 4
Caskey, N.:08
Cassai, M: S6
Chapman, Rev. J. W: F 4
Cherrie, G. K: Ap6
Chicago SheU Club: Mr 18
chondrules (in meteorites);

OlO
clay balls: Jan 2
Coachella lizard; Jan 31
Cole, G.;Apl2
colobus: May 2
columbine; S 16
condor, Andean: May 15
condor, Calif.: May 15
Conover, B.: Ap7
Continental Bank: F 16
Curfu; Janl6
Cory, C. B.:Ap6
cotinga; S 22

crane, whooping: JunelO, 026
cricetid; Mav 19
26 cui-ui: S 27 '

Curtis, G.:Mr5
Dahlgren, B.E.:Mayll
Danziger, C.:F20
Darwin, C: June 12
Daskal, K.:Apl2
Davis, D.: Jan 10, Ap 7
de la Torre, L. : Jan 6
Dearborn, N.: Ap 6
Delphi; Jan 16
Delta green ground beetle:

Jan 31
Denison, R. H.;Janl3
Derda, D.:Jan6
Despots, Palace of the: Jan 17
Devonian shales (Walnut

Creek): J/A 3
Diaz, A: O 20
Dillon, M.: May 11
Dinosaur Day: 0 11
dinosaur eggs: Jan 32
Dixon, G.:0 14
Djoser pyramid: N 3
donor honor roll: Mr 26, S 24
Drake, R: Mr 5, June 12
Drouet, F.: May 11
Drovetti, B.;S31
Dubrovnilc Jan 16
Duckworth, B.; Mr 20
Dunkirk Black Shale: J/A 5
Dybas, H. S.: Jan 3, Ap 10, N 2
eagle, bald; Mr 25
Egegik, AK: June 4
Egypt, ancient; Mr 12,

Nov issue
Egypt, predynastic; N 7
Elliot, D.G.:Ap 6
EUis, Mrs. G. C.;Jan5
endowment fund: S 8
Engel, J.: May 11
Eskimo culture: June 4
Evers, C; Jan6
evolution: May 17
evolution, convergent; S 23
false door (Egypt): N 28
Farrington, O.: Mr 4, June 3
faunal interchange: May 18
Feuer-Forster, S.: May 11
Field, M. ra:S9
Field, M.I; Jan 4, S 8
film festival; S 17
First Mesa (AZ): June 19
Fischer, D.: Ap 5
Fitzpatrick, J. W.: Jan 3, 14
Flaherty, R.:S 17
flower-pecker S 23
flower-piercer; S 23
flute dance (Hopi); June 24
flycatcher: S 22
Fooden, J.: Ap6
forest, Illinois: O 26
Famenian epoch: J/A 3
Frasnian epoch: J/A 3
Frassetto, M.F.:S17
Friesser, J.: Mr 16
Ganapathy, R.; J/A 5
geese, weeder S 27
Geology, Dep't of: Mr 6
Gerhard, W. J.: Jan 8, 10, Ap6
Gilpin, O: Mr 9
Gladiolus: S 24
glyptodont; May 17
Gotfo San Jose: June 15
Great Bronze Age of China

attendance: Jan 3
Greenewalt, C. H.: S 22
Greenfield, D.W.:Ap 10
Greenman, J. H.: May 10
Gueret, N.: Ap6
Gulick, B.:Junel2
Haake, N. M.:S6
Haas, F.: Ap7
Haida canoes; 0 12
Haida pipemaking: 0 15
Hanover Gray Shale; J/A 5
Harris, N.W.:S 9
Hart, H. I.: J/A 21
Hatshepsut: Mr 13, J/A 23
Hay, OP: Ap 6
Hayes, H: Jan5
Hayden, F. V.:J/A7
hegetothere: May 16
HeUer, E.;Ap6
Hellmayr, C. E.: Ap7
Hero (ship); June 12
Herrin, W.;J/A14

Hershkovitz, P.: Jan 6
Hollingsworth, W. E; 09
honey eater: S 23
honeycreeper: S 23
Hopi culture: May 4, June 17
Hopi Gift Shop: S 7
housefly; Jan 32
HoweU, F. C: Ap 13
Hubbs, C.:Ap6
hummingbirds: S 2, 12ff
Indian paint brush; S 14
Ingalik Indians; F 4
Inger, R. F.: Ap7
insecticide: S 33
Irving, M.;0 12
Jackson, W.H.: J/A 6
Jastrzebski, Z.; Jan 25, F 14
John G. Searle Herbarium:

May 10, S 10
Johnson, L.; Ap 11
Johnson, P.: Jan 6
Johnson, R.K.; Jan 3, 14, Ap 10
juniper O 2
Just, T: May 11
kachina doU; May 5, June 17
kangaroo ban: S 33
Kathakali; Ap 26, May 26
Keller, M: J/A 21
KeUogg Hall of Jade; SIC
Kemp, A.: S3
Kethley,J.:Jan6, 14
Kijik, AK; June 4
Kiva: June 19
Klein, R.:Ap 13
Kleindienst, M. R.: Apl3
Kohlman, A. F.:J/A14
Kokwok, AK; June 4
Kolata, A. L. Jan 22
Komodo dragon: Mr 3
Kozlowski, N.: Jan 6
Knossos; Jan 16
Kroc, R. A.; S 10
Kukalova-Peck,J.:F16
LaMum, L.;Mr21, Ap7
Lake Clark, AK: June 4
Lasisi, D.;F22
Laubach, R.: Jan6
Laughlin, K.:F17
Learning Museum Program:

Jan 26, Mr 12, O 4
Lewis, P: Jan 21, F 22
Liem, K. F.:Jan6,]3
lily, spear: S 16
Lloyd, M.; Jan 10
lobeUa: S 14
lungfish: S 2
MacBride,J. F.:MaylO
MacRae, J.:S6
macraucheniid: May 16
manatee: Mr 25, June 10
Martin, R:F 22
Marx, H: Jan 6,10, Ap 7
Masau (Hopi god): June 23
masks of NW Coast: Dec issue
Matheson, M.;08
Maurer, D.: Ap9
McLaren, D.J. : J/A 4
McMahon, F.;F16
Meek, S.E.:Ap6
Meevers, H.: June 27
Members' Nights: May 3
Menke, H.W.;Mr7
Merrick, M.: Ap9
MerriU, G. K.;S7
mesothere: May 16
meteorites: O 8
Meza, M.; Jan2
"Middle Stone Age": Ap 12
Millspaugh, C. F.; May 10
Minoan Palace: Jan 16
Mistra: Jan 17
MogoUon Rim: May 4
Molnar, A.: S 3
monkey, guereza: May 2
Moseley, M. E.; Jan 22
Moulding, Mrs. A. T.: Mr 18
Mudhead (Hopi): June 23
Murphy, J. C: Jan5
Nagel, C.;O20
Nakht, tombof;NB
Naupactos; Jan 18
Naxos: Jan 18
NEA grant (Educ.):F 16
Neanderthal figure: F 20
Nee, M: May 11

NEH grant (Anthro.): Ap 5

Netjer-user; N 26

Nevling, L. I., Jn Jan 4, My 11,
03

Nichols, H.W.: Mr 6

Niman kachina: June 20

Nitecki, M. H.;Ap5

Nootka canoe-builders: 0 12

Northwest Coast pipemakers;
015

NSF grants (Anthro.); May 14,
(Birds); Jan 3, (Botany); S 6,
(Herbarium): My 14, (GeoL):
S 6, (Manunals): F 16, (sys-
tematica symposium): F 16

Nsongezi Prehistoric Site:
Apl3

Nushagak, AK: June 6

Office of Polar Programs:
June 12

Old Iliamna, AK: June 4

Olsen, E.J.;J/A5

opossum: May 21

Oraibi Pueblo: May 4

Osgood, W. H.; Ap 6, June 4

osprey; O 20

Palace of Fine Arts: F 18

Palmer, H.: Jan 6

Palmer, N.: June 12

Panamanian land bridge: Mr 5

parrot, brush-tongued: S 23

Pascual, R.:Mr5

Patagonia; June 12

Petrie, W. M. F.;N33

petunia: S 14

Phobos (Mars moon): J/A 4

phororhacoid ground bird;
May 22

Planned Giving Program: S 10

Plowman, T.: May 11

Ponce de Leon, P.; May 11

porcupine: May 21

porpoise quota: Mr 25

Powamuya ceremony (Hopi):
June 21

Price, L.; Mr 19

Prince Trust: S 6

procyonid: May 19

Prokop, M.: Jan6

protothere: May 16

Pueblo Bonito; May 5

Rabb, G.: Ap 7

Radtke, N. P.: S 7

Rameses H: S 30

rattlesnake, rattleless: 0 19

Raup, D. M.:Jan3, 4

Raymond, Mrs. A. L.: S 10

Reaves, V.: Jan6

receptaculitids: Ap 21

Resetar, A.: Ap8

Rhino, black: Jan 32

Rietschel, S.: Ap21

Riggs, E. S.;Mr6, 7

Roberts, H.W.: Mr 18

Robertson, M.: Apl2

Rock Creek (TX) meteorite: O 9

Roggenthene, W.: June ^

Roife, W. D. I.;S7

roof recovered: S 7

Rosetta Stone: Mr 15, S 30

Roy, S. K.:Mr6

Rueckert, A. G.:June7

rugs; O 4

Runnells, Mrs. C.;S2

Ryerson, M. A.:S8

sabertooths: May 25

saguaro; Mr 11

Salonika; Jan 19

Salt, H.:S30

salvia; S 24

San Francisco Peaks (AZ):
June 2, 17

Sanders, T. : Ap 5

Santa Fe Industries Fndtn.;
May 14

Schmidt, K. R:Jan7, Ap6

Schoknecht, R.: Jan 6

sea lion: 0 19

SeaofCortez:018

seal, northern elephant: O 22

Searle,J. G.:S10

SegaU, W.:Ap4

Senmut: Mr 13

Shedd Aquarium; S 3

Shipaulovi: June 20

Simpson, G. G.: May 17

Singer, R.: May 11

Singer, R.:Mr4

sloth: May 18, 22

Smith, H.:Mr4

Solem, G. A.: Apll

Soyal (Hopi ceremony):
June 24

sphinx: J'A 24

Standley, R C: May 10

Stewart, D. J.; Jan 3, Ap 10

Steyermark, J. A.; May 11

Stoize, R.:Mayll

Streuver, S.:Mr4

Swartchild, W. G. Jn Ap 4

Systematics Symposium; Ap 5

Tanaina Indians; Jime 5

Tchen, H: Jan5

teepee {see tipi)

Tecopa pupfish: Jan 32

Terrell, J.; Ap4

Tesser, N.;F3

Testa, R.:F 17

Thera (Akroteri): Jan 18

Timm, R.: Jan 14, Ap 11

tipi: Ap 14

Tlingit Indians: 0 14

tobacco use (NW Coast); 0 14

Townsend, J.; June 6

toxodont: May 16

Traylor, M. A.: Jan 3, Ap 9

Tri-StateUniv.:Jan3

Trinklein, F. E.:J/A14

Tripp,C. D.:S9

trumpet-creeper S 14

tuna fishermen: Mr 25

turtle, loggerhead: S 33

turtle, sea: Mr 11

Unis-ankh:Jan24, N26

U. S. Antarctic Research Pro-
gram: June 12

valley elderberry longhom
beetle; Jan 31

Valley of the Kings: S 31

Venice; Jan 15

Vermillion, D.; S 7

Visiting Scientist Program;
F 16, Ap 21, S 6

volunteers: Ap 23

Voris, H.: Ap 7, 8

vulture; May 15

Walpi Village (Hopi); June 19

Walters, L; Mr 17

warbler, Kirtland's: S 10

Watrous, L.: Jan 14

Webber, E. L.:Jan5,F16,
May 14, S 6, O 3

Weed, A. C.:Ap6

WeUs, F. E.:Mr20

Wenzel, R. S.:Jan6, AplO

WestoU,TS.:S4

whale: June 15, 0 19, 21

Whitcomb, D. A.:Jan24

white-eye: S 23

Whitt, N.:Jan6

Wilkie, L.;012

Willamette meteorite: June 3

Williams, L: May 11

Williams, L. O.: May 11

Winter, B; Jan 6

Woodland, B.G.; Jan 3

Woods, L. R:Jan6, Ap9

Woodward, S.; Jan 25

Woolman, A. J; Ap9

women, role of in Hopi cul-
ture; June 21

Wonder, F.C.; Mr 16

Wuwucim (Hopi ceremony):
June 24

Young, K.; Mr 20

Young, S: Ap5

Zangerl, R.:Mr6

Zawacki, R.;MrlO

Zimmer, J. T.: Ap 6

Zinsmeister, W.; June 12

Zoology, Dep't of: Ap 6

LdtMA f/toin; tte iA/tctuo -- 1

By Edward Olsen
Cu ra to r of Mi ne ralogy

Photos courtesy of the author

Hindsight is a marvelous teacher. Once we
know something is possible it becomes
easy to say why it is so and to go on to make
predictions. Such is the state of things for those
of us who search this planet for meteorites.

Over the past twelve years something like
6,000 meteorite fragments have been recovered
from the ice cap of east Antarctica. Once the
phenomenon of Antarctic meteorite concen-
trations was discovered accidentally by the
Japanese, hindsight came into action and it
was obvious why meteorites were there in such
quantities in the first place.

When a meteorite lands in a place like an
Illinois prairie, for example, it finds itself in a
(chemically) hostile environment. The ambient
air contains two deadly chemicals — oxygen and
water. The meteorite came from deep space,
where both of these are utterly absent. The

minerals that make up the meteorite begin to
oxidize, or rust, from reaction with oxygen.
This reaction proceeds more rapidly in warm
weather than in cold. Then during the warm
months, moisture slowly creeps into the minute
ppre spaces along mineral grain boundaries that
permeate the meteorite. Rains soak in. Winter
comes and, as we all know, when water freezes
it expands. A bottle of water sitting outside in
freezing weather cracks into pieces. The same
thing happens to the meteorite — small cracks
are opened and chips flake off due to the crack-
ing action of ice. Each year the cracks get larger,
until the meteorite falls to pieces. In addition,
soils in which fallen meteorites find themselves
are full of bacteria and decaying vegetation,
both of which release complex acids. These cor-
rode minerals in the meteorite, aiding the pro-
cess of weathering. In a few years, the meteorite

Edward Olsen (right)
with party members
on Devon Island ice-
cap. From left:
Blyth Robertson,
Les Coleman, Steve
Kissin, and Olsen.
In the search heli-
copter is pilot
Lin Hoe, 27

is not easily recognized as anything different
from other crumbly rocks. In ten years it's
totally reduced to rubble.

We've known for a long time that meteor-
ites endure longer in desert climates like Ari-
zona, west Texas, and eastern Colorado. This is
because moisture levels are low and the soils
have low levels of organic compounds. Know-
ing this, it should have occurred to someone
that a place like Antarctica, which is bitter cold,
sterile, has practically zero humidity, and no
soils, would be a place where meteorites could
last longer than in temperate climates. But no
one thought of this.

With the Antarctic meteorite discoveries
now well documented, the next step is obvi-
ous. If one ice cap is a good place to look for the
preservation of meteorites then we ought to
look at the world's other ice caps. The next
largest cap is on Greenland. Ever since the
Antarctic discoveries, there has been interest
in going there for a search. In 1978, two years
after I returned from the Antarctic, a joint
Danish- American expedition to Greenland was
planned. But because of a combination of prob-
lems over transportation and financing, the
search never took place; the idea lingers on,
of course.

There are other, smaller ice caps in the Arc-
tic Islands of Canada's Northwest Territories.
The largest of these covers the eastern half of
Devon Island. In the spring of last year I was
asked to join a Canadian expedition to make
a reconnaissance search for meteorites on the
Devon Island ice cap as well as a shorter search
on part of the smaller ice cap on EUesmere Is-
land, just north of Devon Island. The group
consisted of Dr. Blyth Robertson of the Depart-
ment of Mines, Energy and Resources Canada,
Dr. Les Coleman of the University of Saskat-
chewan, Dr. Steve Kissin of Lakehead Univer-
sity (Thunder Bay, Ontario), and me. Although
the ice caps appeared to have surface conditions ■
that are poor for meteorite recovery, it looked
like a worthwhile project.

On July 20 I flew from Chicago to Montreal.
The next morning I met Robertson and we took
off to the north on Nordair, a local airline. We
flew northward over Quebec and Labrador. The
air was clear and I could see the thousands of

^is^^=

w^-^^-^^^i

v^}.,.i^. -^'^

c-.;ir.

lakes that dot the interior of Labrador. I thought
of the five years I had worked down there,
years and years ago, doing geological mapping
around those lakes. Soon the treeline was
passed and we were flying over barren lands.
Over Hudson's Straits we could see our first
icebergs. We made a forty-minute stopover at
Frobisher Bay, on Baffin Island, to drop off some
of the passengers, then flew on to an airfield at
Resolute Bay, on Comwallis Island, one of the
Arctic islands just to the west of Devon Island.

At Resolute we stayed in barracks that are
M^^ed by the Canadian government for arctic
reseSfeli parties. The barracks are trim wooden
buildir^ with sleeping rooms, toilet and laun-
dry facffities, and a dining room operated by a
smiiin^skimo woman and her pretty teenage
daughKv The next day we were joined by the
other party members who flew in by way of
Edmonton, Alberta.

The first day was sunny and fairly warm;
however, for two days the weather was dark
and windy with snow squalls. While waiting for
transportation to Devon Island we hiked to one
coast of Comwallis Island to visit a cluster of
ancient Eskimo ruins — a Thule culture site.
Long ago a small group of these people built
houses (igloos) of flagstone walls. Whale ribs
over the top held skins and sod blocks for roofs.
Now only stone rings and a tumble of whale
bones remain next to a shoreline of stranded ice-
bergs and floating sea ice.

On July 24 the weather improved and we
took off from Resolute Bay aboard a Twin Otter
aircraft. We flew to Truelove Inlet, named after a
whaling ship, the Truelove, that overwintered
there a long time ago. At Truelove there is a
camp consisting of five quonset-type huts. Here
was a party of five biologists making a siu-vey
of arctic birds. Over fifty bird species visit this
area, many of them nesting here. The most
common are snow buntings, old-squaw ducks,
and Baird's sandpipers, but there are abundant
species too, like red-throated loons, golden
plovers, knots and even the occasional raven.

It is interesting that in these polar islands
birds from Europe and North America con-
verge. They intermingle in the siunmer months,

Edward Olsen standing by meltwater stream in ice
cave, Devon Island.

ELLESMEFE ISLO.ND

CANADA

Nodding, or bulblet, saxifra^
Truelove lowland, Devon Islam

>e (Saxifraga cornua) on

nest, raise young, then depart in late August
southward down their separate migration
paths, ending up in Spain, North Africa, etc., or
the United States and the Gulf of Mexico. The
birdwatching was excellent at Truelove, as was
the display of a wide variety of flowering plants
— all small alpine types — in yellow, red, purple,
and blue. 1 didn't realize it at the time, but the
Truelove lowland is a kind of environment
that is not too widespread on Devon Island.
Most of the island is an elevated plateau with
almost no vegetation, no soil, and no birds.

The party of five biologists doing the survey
consisted of two graduate students: Jody Butler
of the University of British Columbia and Galen
Pittman from the University of Kansas; a Cana-
dian government biologist, Al Smith from Ot-
tawa; and two faculty members from the North-
ern Alberta Institute of Technology, Rod Moore
and Don Pattie. Don is the man principally re-
sponsible for the presence of the facilities at
Truelove. Through his affiliation with the Arctic
Institute of North America he has, over a period
of eleven years, built up the station to what it is
today. Among the buildings are three sleeping
quarters, a repair shop, a cook house, and an
airstrip. Don has surveyed the bird populations
on the Truelove lowland for a decade, measuring
increases and decreases in species. His total
count of all species for a summer ranges from
about 1,100 to 1,700 individuals. With such low
populations it is undesirable to collect birds. Don
noted that the first surveys of arctic birds were
made by ornithologists with guns, who shot and
collected specimens. This resulted in the near
elimination of some species; but now with a de-
cade of no shooting, these species have in-
creased their nesting numbers
in this region.

To reach the ice cap for our meteorite search
we would need a helicopter. The cap lay only 18
miles away; however, a river and two large
scarps, or cliffs, together almost 2,000 feet high,
lay between us and the ice. Although the
weather at Truelove was good, at Resolute it was
terrible and a helicopter couldn't be sent. On top
of it all, a burst of sunspot activity ruined radio
communication for a day and some aircraft
flights were restricted. Resolute is only a short
distance from the north magnetic pole. Sunspot
activity is more disturbing to communications in
this area because of that.

We had some time on our hands while wait-
ing for the helicopter. We spent a little time get-
ting used to our rifles and shotguns. The arctic's
first citizen is the polar bear and in some years
they can be numerous. In 1980 nine were seen
near Truelove. Guns are required for peace of
mind more than anything else. Few bears are

ever actually shot, and none of us had any desire
to do so.

We took some long hikes over the tundra
and into the adjoining hills. The Truelove low-
land is in front of a series of mesa-like ridges of
flat-lying Cambrian sedimentary rocks. A giant
fault scarp runs east-west a few miles south of
camp, exposing pre-Cambrian granites along the
base of a 1,000-foot cliff. The scenery is stark,
barren, and impressive. Hiking the lowland, we
encountered herds of grazing shaggy muskoxen.
At one place a small herd, consisting of a bull,
two calves, and five cows, stood their ground
before us in true muskox fashion, forming a
line in front of their young with heads lowered
and horns aimed at us . I walked within 35 feet of
them, and although they shuffled about they
stood fast, the bull snorting at me, honing one of
his horns against his foreleg. If the bull were
alone he would have made short charges at me,
but with calves present he stayed with them.
Standing close by you can easily feel a real affec-
tion for them; they are great mounds of fur that
hang to the ground and blow in the wind. They
are basically gentle creatures that seem to want

only to be left alone. This group finally broke and
thundered off over the tundra towards a nearby
low ridge.

Across the tundra you can find places where
muskoxen have shed mats of hair. A small ball of
it, loosely cupped in the hand, will cause your
palm to become very warm. Its insulating qual-
ities are so good that the heat from your hand
builds up and little is lost.

We continued our hike to a broad, rocky
valley with a roaring glacial stream criss-crossing
its floor. At one point a magnificent waterfall was
seen pouring over a notch in the scarp, in a series
of cascades. As we climbed over a high ridge we
could see the icecap in the distance, high above
the valley wall, gleaming white in the sunlight.
The weather was improving.

The next day the helicopter arrived with a
pilot and a mechanic. We flew to the ice cap as
the weather began to go bad again. Part of our
group was set down to traverse a moraine of rock
that lay strewn on the ice. Steve and I flew
northward along the cap to do the same at any
other rock showings. We set down at another
moraine and then hiked about four miles to some

Moraine area of valley
glaciers on Ellesmere
Island; Blyth
Robertson at right.

,Mi^^

Above: Surface of
icecav, Ellesmere Is-
land. Meltwater river
meanders across fore-
ground. Far right:
Muskoxen arrange
themselves in charac-
teristic defensive pose.
Truelove lowland,
Devon Island.

isolated rocks that we could see through binocu-
lars high up on the top of the ice slopes. All the
rocks in this area were granites of several kinds. I
got a special, personal thrill out of this trek, for I
had now hiked on all three of the world's largest
continental ice caps — Antarctica, Devon Island,
and (exactly 30 years earlier) Greenland.

The weather was getting terrible. Low
clouds rolled past at surface levels, obscuring the
view in several directions. Snow squalls swirled
by. The ice surface was cut by melt-water rivu-
lets, and walking required constant probing with
an ice axe handle to see if we were going to break
through small crevasses. We finally found our
way back to the helicopter and took off. Finding

the other part of our party wasn't easy in the
snowstorm. I began to get worried that we'd
have to return to Truelove without them until the
weather improved. A small break in the clouds,
at the right time, revealed a tiny figure plodding
through the snow below us. We set down and
picked them up. We flew back to Truelove to wait
out the weather.

The next day the weather continued to be
bad. The ice cap had black clouds rolling over its
surface; however, by about 8 p.m. it cleared and
was bright and sunny over the cap. With 24
hours of daylight, work can go on when the
weather is good rather than by the clock. So we
packed our gear and took off in the helicopter.

■q^:^

%.. '*<,

We cruised the ice cap at 1-3 mph, setting down
near any rocks showing on the surface. By about
3 a.m. we had covered the entire portion of the
ice cap that we had planned to search. No
meteorites!

We sailed down a huge valley glacier, the
Sverdrup Glacier, between vertical walls of gra-
nite, and emerged out over the Arctic Ocean — a
magnificent flight experience. We followed the
coastline back to Truelove Inlet, counting 105
muskoxen, in herds up to 14 individuals, along
our course. The scenery was spectacular in the
light of the low-hanging sun. When we landed
back in camp we flushed a group of arctic foxes.

Although our expectations for meteorite re-

coveries on Devon Island were never high, we
were all disappointed at not finding at least one.
Theoretical calculations indicated between 1,500
and 3,000 meteorite fragments would be there,
potentially. We knew ahead of time, from aerial
photographs, that the ice cap had a heavy snow
cover at any given time, and was very different
from the Antarctic ice cap, which has bare blue
ice, little snow cover, roaring winds, and no melt-
ing. The main hope of finding any meteorites on
Devon Island was the chance some portion of the
ice cap would be windswept and clear of snow,
exposing the old ice beneath it. We found no
such areas.

The next day a Twin Otter aircraft arrived
from Resolute and took our party north, across
the sea, to an Eskimo village at Grise Fjord on
Ellesmere Island. Shortly afterward our helicop-
ter arrived, and while it was refueling, we had a
chance to go into the Eskimo Cooperative trad-
ing post, where I bought a soapstone carving .

We took off and headed eastward across the
ocean to a large headland, where we turned
north and flew up a glacier- filled valley, over a
height of jagged mountains and into a valley of
spectacular arctic beauty. It was a place on the
Ellesmere ice cap where eight valley glaciers
flowed into a depression with no outlet. When
the expedition to Devon Island was originally
planned, a Canadian glacier expert had sug-
gested we might also look at this place on
Ellesmere.

It is an extraordinary situation, glaciologi-
cally, to have so many valley glaciers pushing
into a central depression. It was thought that
perhaps, among the accumulated rock debris of
all these glaciers carried into this spot from sur-
rounding areas of several thousand square miles,
there might be some concentration of meteorites.
Our hopes were never high for this area because
we knew that there would be vast amounts of
rocks from the surrounding mountains that
would make it almost impossible to notice any
meteorites among them. That is exactly how it
worked out. The depression was a jumble of

The stark, lonely
beauty of the arctic ts
captured in Olsen's
shot of stranded ice-
bergs on Comwallis
Island coast, near
Resolute Bay.

granites and other terrestrial rocks. We climbed
onto one of the largest glaciers and walked across
it for miles on the chance some meteorite might
be on the surface. We found no rocks at all.
Across the surface of the ice ran a huge meltwa-
ter river — icy water cutting into pure ice. The
channel was deep blue in color and utterly clear
and clean. The water coursed swiftly, swinging
along deeply cut meanders, almost completely
silent.

We flew back to Grise Fjord, refuelled, then
flew across the sea to Devon Island and Truelove
Inlet. While cruising over the sea ice we saw
our first polar bear — a huge white fellow, who
was obviously upset by the sound and whoosh of
air from the helicopter. He dove into a pond of
meltwater on the ice surface, then raced off
across the ice as we followed him. We circled him
at low elevation and he finally sat down and
looked up at us in confusion. We left him in
peace.

The next day a Twin Otter flew us to Reso-
lute Bay, and Les and Steve departed for home. I
was to spend more time back on Devon Island

collecting samples from an ancient meteorite im-
pact crater on the western, unglaciated end of
the island.

The meteorite search on the Devon Island
ice cap did have a yield of information, if not of
meteorites. Ice caps in arctic regions are too snow
covered to be good search areas for meteorites.
The Antarctic ice cap is much colder; virtually no
melting takes place there at any time of the year,
and most of the ice accumulates on the surface by
direct condensation of small amounts of mois-
ture in the air, rather than by snowing, as it does
in the arctic. These differences are due to several
factors. The Antarctic continent sits alone over
the south pole and is surrounded by open oceans
that have no effect on altering the circumpolar
weather pattern. The ice caps in the arctic,
Devon and Greenland, are in subpolar positions
and have many land masses nearby to break up
the circumpolar weather pattern. The arctic is
warmer as a result, and the ice surfaces are dif-
ferent. From the Devon Island search we learned
that a search of Greenland, too, may not yield
new meteorite finds. D

OUR ENVIRONMENT

Radio Beacon Leads Investigators
to Bald Eagle Burial Site

"He that has patience may compass any-
thing," the 16th-century French satirist
Rabelais wrote. "Patience," in both the
literal and figurative sense, coupled with
some sophisticated 20th-century technol-
ogy, led U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
investigators recently to the conclusion of
an unusual case involving the death of an
endangered bald eagle.

A matchbox- sized radio transmitter
emitting a prolonged rapid-pulse "dis-
tress" signal off the taU of a bald eagle
nicknamed "Patience" led airborne biolo-
gists to a 50-acre island in Oregon's Snake
River, where they uncovered the eagle's
burial site.

Their discovery, after three months of
charting the research bird's elusive migra-
tion path through the intermountain
west, led to an inquiry by Fish and Wildlife
Service law enforcement agents. Charged
with the shooting of the endangered bald
eagle was an Oregon rancher, who had
tossed its carcass into the island's garbage
dump last January. There, its miniature
radio device continued to emit a staccato
pulse that led its trackers ever closer to the
scene of the bird's abrupt end.

In July, after a lengthy investigation
during which the Oregon man confessed
to the shooting, the Federal Court in Port-
land, Oregon, ordered the rancher to pay
a $2,500 fine under a settlement with the
U.S. Attorney's office. One-halfof the fine
will be turned over to Glacier National
Park's Bald Eagle Research Project to fund
further research. The rancher received the
fine and a 30-day suspended jail sentence
for violating the Bald Eagle Protection Act.

"Patience," a three-year-old female
that had not yet acquired the "bald" head
of white feathers distinctive for mature
five-year-old birds, became a research
subject in the McDonald Creek section of
Glacier Park. There, researchers captured
the bird, attached the tiny radio transmit-
ter and identification markers, and re-
leased it. In a program cosponsored by the
National Park Service and the University
of Montana and supported by the Na-
tional Audubon Society and the Wildlife
Management Institute, the scientists are
studying the migration patterns of the
birds, which are officially listed as "en-
dangered" in 43 states and "threatened"
in five others. (In Alaska, the species is not
in such danger, however.)

An estimated 10 percent of the bald
eagles known to winter in the United
States pass through Glacier each fall. At
times, their concentration in McDonald

Creek can range as high as 600 birds. In
1980, researchers began equipping the
birds with radio transmitters in an effort to
reveal the eagles' winter migration routes
farther south and their return routes to
summer nesting grounds in Canada, with
an eye towards developing a management
plan for crucial roosting and feeding sites
along their path.

"Patience" remained in the vicinity of
Glacier Park and nearby Rathead Lake
until December, 1980, when it departed on
a migration of more than 500 miles along
Idaho's Bitterroot Mountains and the
middle fork of the Salmon River. This was
the first time that researchers were able to
fully track a research bird's westerly mi-
gration, in contrast to the more southerly
migration route taken by most of Glacier's
eagles.

Harriet Allen, a Bald Eagle Research
Project biologist, tracked the bird for most
of its journey, driving more than 6,000
miles on mountain roads as she followed
the flight path. Somewhere along the
Snake River near Ontario, Oregon, "Pa-
tience's" radio signals were lost. Allen
reestablished contact during two flights
over the river, but an unchanging series of
"fast pulse" radio signals told her the bird
was possibly in trouble.

Allen pinpointed Old Crow Island,
about two miles south of Ontario, where
she had sighted the bird on one instance
the week before, as the site of the distress
signals. The island, in the middle of the
Snake River, is owned by the state of Ore-
gon and leased for farming and grazing.
There, under a foot of rubbish covered
with a sheet of metal, Allen and state
biologists found "Patience," its orange
wing markers torn off but its radio trans-
mitter still attached and operating. X-rays
revealed that the bird had been struck in
the head by a shotgun pellet.

"I felt a tremendous sense of loss, as
did everyone on the project," Allen said.
"There was much more we could have
learned from this bird. But it was one of
the few instances when we could fully
piece together the details of one of the
many eagle shootings in the West."

The Fish and Wildlife Service esti-
mates that up to 200 bald and golden
eagles may be killed in the Pacific North-
west each year by gunners who illegally
shoot raptors, by suppliers of the illicit
trade in eagle feathers and related items,
and by people who set baited traps for
other wildlife and accidentally snare eagles.

The service began an investigation
into the eagle's death by interviewing a
nearby landowner who raises livestock
and poultry on Old Crow Island. He con-

fessed to the shooting, claiming that he
thought the bird was a hawk that posed a
threat to his livestock.

Under the Bald Eagle Protection Act,
bald and golden eagles are protected and,
except under limited circumstances, their
killing, possession, and trade is illegal,
with penalties of up to one year in jail and
a fine of $5,000 for first offenses. (The bald
eagle is also protected under the En-
dangered Species Act and, in addition to
hawks and other birds, is protected by the
Migratory Bird Treaty Act.)

^If^-ft-

Painting Town Red Passe?

Incredible though it may sound, a French
artist, Jean Verame, is currently spray-
painting the mountains in the previously
untouched valley of Bir Nafach, an area
close to the historically sacred Mount
Sinai, with 13 tons of black and blue paint.
Boulders, peaks, and rock walls are now
literally black and blue in polka-dots,
triangles, and squares.

The artist calls it "adding a human
dimension to nature"; conservationists
call it "vandalism." The natural desert
sandstone hues of the mountains of
southern Sinai will bear Verame's imprint
for many years.

Killer Deer

You think that cuddly fawn you picked up
and raised by hand would never harm a
soul? Think again.

Kim Heller, a photographer with
Ohio Department of Natural Resources,
died from wounds suffered when he was
gored by a deer. Heller was on assignment
for the department at a private wildlife
preserve when a semidomesticated
white-tailed deer charged and gored him
in the chest and abdomen.

Cut and bruised. Heller managed to
crawl into a nearby pond and escape the
deer. Later, he was able to make his way to
his vehicle and drive to the home of the
preserve manager for help. But he died
five days later in a hospital.

The attack on Heller is not a rare type
of incident. There are many reports of
"tame" deer kicking, goring, or otherwise
inflicting injury on their "owners" or
others. 35

f EDITH FLEMING
' 946 PLEASANT
fcOAK PARK ILL 60302

*■'.

January & February at Field Museum

January 16 through February 15

Continuing Exhibits

"In the Shadow of the Pyramid." A newly designed section of
the Egyptian Collection, Hall J, presents prehistoric and early
historic exhibits in proper context. Visitors can walk through the
tomb chapel of an Egyptian nobleman, Unis-ankh, and view
afterlife offerings in another tomb through a glass wall. Outside
the south entrance to the Egyptian Room a replica of the Tomb
Chapel of Nakht, on loan from the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
has been installed. The chapel walls are covered with reproduc-
tions of some of the finest known Egyptian tomb paintings.

Indians of Middle America. Aztec stone sculptures are a high-
light of this exhibit, focusing on Middle American cultures, 1500
B.C. to the present. In addition to costumes, pottery, and farm
tools, you'll see dioramas of an Aztec marketplace and of a Maya
ceremony, as well as a canoe of modern-day Cuna Indians. Hall
8, main floor.

New Programs

Winter Fun. Children in various age groups are invited to join a
natural history workshop during January. Each project will be
for one or two Saturday sessions. Call 322-8854 for a brochure
with more information and prices.

D January 16: 10 a.m. -12 noon.

"Arctic Journey." A craft project, making a mini-igloo, weather

permitting; ages 4 and 5.

"Costumes for the Sorcerer's Dance." Continuation of Jan. 9

workshop.

"Metal Casting." Craft project and tour; ages 9-12.

n January 16: 1 p.m. -3 p.m.

"Different Faces from Faraway Places." Continuation of Jan. 9

workshop.

"Indian Drums." Craft project and tour of Pawnee Earth Lodge;

ages 6-8.

"Metal Casting." Craft project and tour; ages 9-12.

D January 23: 10 a.m. -12 noon.

"Arctic Whales." Stories, songs, and slide program; ages 4 and 5.

"Reptile Tales." Demonstration and tour; ages 6-8.

"Our Feathered Friends." Craft project and tour; ages 9-12.

n January 23: 1 p.m. -3 p.m.

"People of Clay." Craft project and tour; ages 6-8. Continued
Jan. 30.

"The Secret Life of Salamanders." Craft project and tour; ages
6-8.

"The Invisible World." Microscopic demonstration and experi-
ment; ages 6-8.

D January 30: 10 a.m. -12 noon.

"The Corn Maiden's Feast." Craft project and tour; ages 4-5.

"The Chinese Shadow Play." Craft project culminates in a

shadow play; ages 6-8.

"Marine Fossils." Demonstration and tour; ages 9-12.

D January 30: 1 p.m. -3 p.m.

"Crickets, Kites and Kids: Village Life in China." Craft project

and tour; ages 4 and 5.

"The Primates: Our First Cousins." Tour and demonstration;

ages 6-8.

"People of Clay." Continuation of Jan. 23 workshop.

Latin American Neighbors Day. A fiesta of events will acquaint
Chicagoans with Spanish-speaking Americans. Dances, tours,
lectures, touchable exhibits, craft projects, and games from the
cultures of Mexico, Central and South America will be featured.
Special programs for children, in Spanish and English. All events
free with Museum admission. Sunday, Jan. 31, 12 noon to 4 p.m.
Highlights include:

D "Nuevo Ideal." Mexican folk dances will be performed in
Stanley Field Hall at 1:30 and 3:30 p.m.

n "Lords of Tiwanaku." Dr. Alan Kolata, visiting assistant
curator of Andean Archeology, will present an illustrated lecture
on the history and evolution of Tiwanaku, one of the great
civilizations of the ancient Americas; 2 p.m. in Simpson
Theatre.

D "Fossil Mammals of South America." Dr. Larry Marshall, as-
sistant curator of fossil mammals, will introduce some of the
strange mammals that evolved in South America during the
millions of years that it was an isolated island continent; 1 p.m.
in Lecture Hall I.

n The Clemente Steel Band of Roberto Clemente High School
will perform at 2:45 p.m. in Stanley Field Hall.

Winter Journey "The Adventures of Marco Polo." In this self-
guided tour, visitors observe animals that Marco Polo saw on his
travels and read his own descriptions of them. Free Journey
pamphlets available at Museum entrances.

Weekend Discovery Programs. Tours, craft projects, slide pre-
sentations, and films which use exhibits as a springboard for
new insights into natural history topics. The January "Film Fea-
tures," focusing on ancient China, will be shown every Saturday
at 1:30 p.m. in Lecture Hall I; free with Museum admission.
Check Weekend Sheet at Museum entrances for other programs.
Coming February 21. "Hidden Valleys of Tibetan Myth and
Legend." Lecture by Edwin Bernbaum, author of The Way to
Shambhala.

Continuing Programs

Volunteer Opportunities. Persons with scientific interests and
backgrounds are needed to work in various departments. Call
the Volunteer Coordinator, 922-9410, ext. 360.

January and February Hours. The Museum is open from 9
a.m.— 4 p.m., Monday-Thursday; 9 a.m. -9 p.m., Friday; and 9
a.m. -5 p.m., Saturday and Sunday.

The Museum Library is open weekdays, 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Obtain a
pass at the reception desk, main floor.

Museum Telephone: (312) 922-9410

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin

<se>.

February 1982

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Calendar: Mary Cassai
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

Board OF Trustees

James J. O'Connor

chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gorden Bent
Bowen Blair
Willard L. Boyd
Mrs. Robert Wells Carton
Stanton R. Cook
O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley 11
Marshall Field
Richard M. Jones
Hugo J. Melvoin
Charles F. Murphy, Jr.
Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
William L. Searle
Edward Byron Smith
Robert H. Strotr
John W. Sullivan
William G. Swartchild, Jr.
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Julian B. Wilkins
Blaine J. Yarrington

Life Trustees

Harry O. Bercher
William McCormick Blair
Joseph N. Field
Paul W. Goodrich
Clifford C. Gregg
Samuel Insull, Jr.
WiUiam V. Kahler
William H. MitcheU
John M. Simpson
J. Howard Wood

CONTENTS
February 1982
Volume 53, Number 2

Field Briefs

Letters from the Arctic — //

by Edward Olsen
Curator of Mineralogy

The Plains Indian Bull-Boat

By James W. VanStone
Curator of North American
Archeology and Ethnology

Dermestids

By Robert M. Timm

Assistant Curator and Head, Division of Mammals 14

Edward E. Ayer Film Lecture Series

Gone Fishing in the Gulf of Honduras

By Robert K.Johnson, chairman of the

Department of Zoology and David W. Greenfield,

Research Associate 20

Field Museum Tours

February and March at Field Museum

Calendar of Coming Events

back
cover

COVER

Winter Afternoon at Lake Michigan Dunes. Photo by
John Kolar.

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is publistied monthly, except combined
July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Stiore Drive,
Ctiicago, n. 60605. Subscriptions; $6,00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin sut)Scription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Postmaster: Please send from 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second class postage
paid at Chicago, II.

FIELD BRIEFS

Field Museum's new Mary W. Runnells Rare Book Room, viewed Rare Book Room and of the renovated Library Reading Room was eel-
through display window. Funding for the new facility, opened December ebrated with a luncheon and tour of the facilities, sponsored by the
2, was provided by Mr and Mrs. John S. Runnells. The opening of the Women's Board of Field Museum.

The Planned Giving Program

All their working lives, the married couple
had wanted to make a substantial gift to
Field Museum. Soon after his wife's
death, the husband realized that now,
having no heirs, was the time to make that
gift, and that his wife would want it this
way. Therefore, he transferred a substan-
tial securities portfolio into the Field
Museum Pooled Income Fund.

In making the gift in this manner, this
individual will receive a lifetime income
through the Fund; morever, he has freed
himself from financial concerns, with his
funds now receiving professional man-
agement. His income, incidentally, will re-
flect a higher yield than his original
portfolio, because he had been "locked
in" to low-yielding, but highly ap-
preciated, securities. By making the trans-

fer, he avoided recognizing the capital
gains, and, therefore, avoided any capital
gains tax; yet, he was able to get an im-
mediate charitable tax deduction on a por-
tion of those funds.

Another person, anxious to help a
friend, this past Christmas transferred
funds into the Pooled Income Fund suffi-
cient to give the friend a generous
monthly income, for life. This donor also
received a charitable income tax deduction
and was freed from any capital gains tax.

These are two examples of types of
gifts that have been made to Field
Museum's Pooled Income Fund since in-
auguration of the Museum's Planned Giv-
ing Program this past September (see the
September Bulletin).

The Pooled Income Fund is a conve-
nient way to assure having a life income
and to make a significant gift to the

Museum at the same time. It is the excep-
tion to the adage, "you can't have it both
ways!" Gifts to the Pooled Income Fund
pass to the Museum's Endowment Fund
at the conclusion of the final life interest.

Since announcement of the
Museum's Planned Giving Program, the
Museum has been informed by many
Museum friends that they have remem-
bered Field Museum in their wills. This
past fall, a survey of the Membership was
taken, to find those persons, and to inter-
est others. The survey had gratifying re-
sults, and any Member who has not yet
responded is urged to do so.

Purpose of the Planned Giving Pro-
gram is to increase the Museum's en-
dowment. Bequests by will and gifts
through life income trust agreements go
into the Endowment Fund, perpetuating
Continued on page 27 3

The first segment of
Edward Olsen's 1981
visit to the Canadian
Arctic was recounted
in "Letters from the
Arctic — I," in the
January, 1982, Bulle-
tin.

Lette/(A f/t/mi tim Aidkj -U

By Edward Olsen
Curator of Mineralogy

Photos courtesy of the author

Sedimentary rock

outcrops, tipped

vertical by asteroid

impact 15 million yean

ago, are still coated

with pale rock dust

created by the impact.

■■ -\>*-. -^i- ;_<ris<f »,l:-5;i'-^^.S.'1-_;:*t5^j3>^af!&

/n 1955, or thereabouts, the first detailed
geological maps were made of many of

the arctic islands of northern Canada. On
Devon Island the geological features were pretty
straightforward: granitic rocks of the deeper
crust are exposed on the eastern half of the is-
land, and these are overlain with sedimentary
rocks (of Paleozoic age) on the western half.

In the western half, however, a peculiar
geological structure was observed. This was a 20
km (12 mile) circular structure consisting of dis-
continuous rings of rock layers tipped upward,
very much broken up by fractures and faults,
and coated with pale gray pulverized rock
that contains chips and fragments of all the
kinds of rock types represented in the area.

The geologists who first mapped this odd
structure were perplexed. It is somewhat similar
to a structure known as a salt dome — so, having
to call it something, that is how they designated
it on the map. It remained that way for sixteen
years, when another geologist. Dr. Mike Dence
of the Department of Energy, Mines and Re-
sources Canada, looking over the geological
maps of the arctic islands, noticed that it was all
by itself on Devon Island; the nearest other
known salt dome was over 500 km (about 300

miles) away on another arctic island. Since salt
domes are sedimentary rock structures that al-
most always occur in clusters, not as singles,
Dence thought the solitary nature of the Devon
Island "salt dome" really odd. Besides, he com-
pared the position of the structure with the
height contours of a topographic map that
existed for the region and found that it consisted
of a slight depression. It occurred to him then
that the structure might really be an ancient
scar from a huge meteorite impact explosion.

In 1975 Dr. Blyth Robertson, also of the
Department of Mines, Energy and Resources
Canada, met a mining company geologist who
was going up to the area. Robertson asked him
to collect some sample rocks, especially any-
thing that looked unusual. In due course he re-
ceived from him a group of samples that were
clearly recognizable as evidence of an impact
explosion — shatter cones.

Shatter cones are just what their name im-
plies, cones formed by the shattering of the rock
from which they are made. Many of us have had
the experience of having our car windshield
struck by a pebble flying up from the wheel of a
passing car. The common form of damage is a
tiny hole on the outside surface, with a small

cone-shaped chip popped out of the inside sur-
face. The pointed end of the cone aims at the
source of the impacting pebble.

For about 25 years it has been recognized
that very large meteorite impact craters have
shatter cones developed in the rocks that sur-
round their centers. These take the form of typi-
cal cones with unique, characteristic flutings on
their surfaces. It has been found that if the direc-
tion of the pointed ends — as seen in outcrops of
the blasted, contorted rocks — are mapped, and
if the original position of horizontal layers is
taken into account, the points all aim radially
toward a single, central point — the point of
impact: "ground zero."

In 1977 Robertson spent part of the arctic
summer at the site, collecting shatter cones,
mapping their positions, and doing a survey of
the gravity field over the structure. When a por-
tion of the earth's surface has suffered a crush-
ing blast, the shattered rock has more pore space
than the original rock, due to the fractures that
form between and through the mineral grains
that comprise it. As a result, crushed rock under
an area will cause the pull of gravity to be very
slightly less than in surrounding areas where
the bedrock is uncrushed. The result of this sur-
vey showed just such a gravity feature: a circle
of 20 km that coincided with the geological
structure and with the slight topographic de-
pression. All this, combined with the shatter
cones and the discovery of a form of quartz in
the rock that is known to crystallize only at very
high shock pressures, made the story conclu-
sive. The structure is definitely an impact crater.

Subsequent study has shown that the im-
pact occurred 15 million years ago, and the orig-
inal crater has been largely filled by sediments
of a lake that once occupied it — which is why
the depression is only slight today. The impact-
ing object was about 1 km in diameter (more
than 3,000 feet). It vaporized completely on
impact.

When a small meteorite, less than about 100
tons, hits the earth, it merely punches a hole
into the soil and usually breaks into fragments
itself. When a meteorite of 100 tons or more hits,
the energy is too high for the meteorite to hold
itself together. The energy is literally greater
than the energy that binds atom to atom in the
minerals that comprise the meteorite. It vapor-
izes as an explosive cloud, excavating millions
of tons of the rock at ground zero, uplifting lay-
ered rocks next to the explosion, and sending a
shock wave through the surrounding area,
causing shatter cones to form. If the blast is
below a certain magnitude a simple, hollowed-
out crater is developed. An example of that kind
of crater is Meteor Crater near Flagstaff,

Arizona. If the explosion is above a certain mag-
nitude a complex crater develops: the central
part is excavated in the blast and immediately
afterward the earth under the center rebounds,
forming a small peak. Such craters are common
on the lunar surface. The central peak is analo-
gous to the blip of water that spurts upward
when a pebble is dropped into standing water.
The crater on Devon Island is one of these. The
central portion has been uplifted into a small
peak just after the impact explosion. In the 15

Limestone shatter cone
formed by severe shock
waves from asteroid
impact.

Ground willoic (Salix

sp.), the single wood]/

plant species in the

high arctic, in

characteristic

ground-clinging

posture.

million years since the impact, however, most of
the peak has been eroded away. The impact
structure has been named Haughton Crater
after a name given by the original geologist to
the "salt dome" he found.

During part of July and August of last year
I had a chance to be a member of a Canadian
expedition to search for meteorites on the ice
cap of eastern Devon Island. When that part
of the expedition was over, I remained with
Robertson and a field assistant, Chris Pitre, to
fly to the Haughton area, set up camp, and run
a different kind of survey — this time a mag-
netometer survey, over the structure.

We flew out of Resolute Bay, on Cornwallis
Island — just west of Devon Island, in a Twin
Otter aircraft with all our equipment on July 30.
We landed on a flat gravel surface next to a river,
not too far from the center of the impact struc-
ture, and put up three tents. A small portable
transmitter radio was hooked up so we could
communicate with the Resolute Bay station. The
place we camped was starkly beautiful. The area
looked just like the desert of central Arizona —
but without the trees and cacti. The valley of the
nameless river, beside which we were camped,
was enclosed between two rows of beautiful
mountain ridges — one of them blanketed with
the pale gray, almost white, coating of pul-
verized rock that had been blown out of the
impact crater so long ago and settled over the
hills surrounding the crater.

The river was shallow, ice cold, crystal
clear, and made a pleasant sound as it splashed
over the rapids in front of the two tents set up
for sleeping. It meandered back and forth across
the valley floor, fed by tributaries that entered

it from melting snowfields on the mountain
sides. The valley floor was made up of a series
of gravel terraces, each quite flat, that were de-
posited during the retreat of the ice cap from
this half of Devon Island.

Our field work began as soon as the camp
was set up. Robertson and Pitre were going to
do the magnetometer survey; my main interest
was in collecting specimens of shatter cones and
impact-shocked bedrocks for study and for use
in future exhibits in the Museum, as well as for
possible exchanges with other museums. Up to
this time only a small collection of specimens
had been made of the Haughton area by the few
government geologists working on it. The Field
Museum was to have the first chance to collect
for broader uses. In fact, I was the first outside
{i.e., nongovernment) geologist to visit the area
since it was recognized as a crater.

In doing work here, field parties have come
to use small all-terrain vehicles — ATVs. I have
always opposed these machines, which allow
men to smash their way into remote places. In-
excusable damage has been done to areas of the
southwestern deserts in Arizona, New Mexico,
and California. In those cases, use of ATVs has
caused compaction of soils, resulting in the de-
struction of the flora and subsequent negative
effects on the fauna. The compacted soils are
also crushed into smaller grain sizes, which are
more easily blown and washed away.

So it was with great concern that I found
our party supplied with three ATVs, one for
each of us. As I walked over the desertlike ter-
rain near the camp I realized that no damage
could be done to the soils, flora, and fauna —
there weren't any! This was a desert of com-
pacted gravel, boulders, and rock outcrop — a
high arctic desert. The only flora consists of
small, widely scattered patches of mosses, a
few algal mats along streams, a wildflower here
and there, and an occasional small, sprawling
willow clinging to the ground. No soil is devel-
oped. The field parties use ATVs because these
vehicles make it possible to cover large distances
and visit more outcrops than would be possible
on foot. In the arctic, field seasons are short and
every effort is made to do the maximum amount
as quickly as possible. The availability of ATVs
and the ability to work around the clock with 24
hours of daylight make it possible to get a lot of
work done each season. In general, Canadian
activities in the arctic are becoming more and
more responsible. Field parties are now re-
quired to bring out all their garbage and to leave
campsites as they found them.

In spite of the justification, I approached my
little, balloon-tired puddle-jumper with a lack
of enthusiasm. As it turned out, the vehicle was

actually of little use to me. Driving along at the
vehicle's lowest possible speed, I was still mov-
ing too fast to examine loose specimens and
outcrops. When walking, I saw far more, and
got'better samples. Besides, I came to hate the
exhaust fumes and the engine noise. Walking
across that vast, empty, unexplored land in
complete silence, with only a whisper of wind
or the subtle rumble of a distant stream or wa-
terfall is too extraordinary an experience to be
spoiled by motor fumes and noise. I used the
vehicle on only two occasions, and on one of
these it rolled over on me when going up a slope
so steep that I shouldn't have tried to climb it in
the first place. The vehicle rolled over a dozen
times as it tumbled down the slope, but after-
ward it still ran just fine.

The day after my accident, Chris went over
a cliff with his ATV. He escaped serious injury,
but his vehicle was smashed beyond immediate
repair. From then on he rode my vehicle and I

did my traverses happily on foot, and alone.

On one of these traverses, a beautiful
sunny day, I was walking through a valley many
miles from camp when I came across fairly fresh
polar bear tracks. I didn't have anything along
for defense because I had mistakenly assumed
the bears wouldn't get that far away from the
sea — about 20 miles. There are few incidents of
serious bear attacks; however, those few are
enough to keep up your respect for them. Sub-
sequently, I carried a loaded rifle on all my treks.
This gave me a feeling of security, although I
had to admit to myself I would find it just about
impossible to shoot one of these animals. I
hoped that shooting at it might be enough to
scare it away. I also carried an old beer can con-
taining small pebbles, for it is said that polar
bears will run away from loud, clanging sounds.
Happily I never had a chance to test out this
theory — or fire the rifle.

One day a helicopter came in to spend the

Canadian govern-
ment geologist Blyth
Robertson (left) and
assistant Chris Pitre
atop a mass of gyp-
sum crystals formed
In/ ground water
deposition.

Pitre, Robertson, and

Olsen (I. to r.) pose by

cook tent witn

all-terrain vehicles.

day with us putting in magnetometer reference
stations. Because of rapid fluctuations in the
magnetic field in this region, so close to the
north magnetic pole, it was necessary to place
all the reference stations as quickly as possible
— hence the helicopter. This process involved
landing at a chosen site, taking a magnetometer
reading, marking the spot with a rock cairn,
hopping into the helicopter again, taking off to a
new spot, miles away, and repeating the pro-
cess. We made sixteen stations that day. It
would have taken several days to do the same
thing by surface travel, even by ATV.

Like most polar field work, north or south,
there is a pattern of intense activity followed by
periods of boring inactivity when the weather
is too rotten to work, or while waiting for air-
craft. On this trip we had long stretches of fog,
drizzle, rain, a few snow flurries, and heavy
overcast skies. After a period of several days of
drizzle we noticed that the little babbling stream
in front of our tents was rising. Our pretty, blue
creek had turned green, was cloudy with fine
sediment, and had grown into a deep, formida-
ble roaring river. By putting reference-marker
stones along the gravel bank that contained it,
we figured the creek was rising at about three
inches an hour. In a few hours our tents would
be flooded. So we moved the two sleeping tents
to a higher gravel terrace, but left the cook tent
where it was, on slightly higher ground away
from the river. In the arctic it is always wise to
put the cook tent a long walk from the sleeping
tents. If a polar bear shows up it will probably
go for the cook tent, with its food odors, first.
The clattering of pots becomes your warning to

get up and eitlier run or shoot it out. If you're
far enough away you have a chance.

After a few hours the river was a raging
torrent, cutting away at the gravel banks. By 11
p.m. the drizzle stopped and we determined
the river had ceased to rise — to only an inch
below the first terrace level. We left the sleeping
tents where they were in case of future rain.

In spite of the off-and-on bad weather, our
work was soon completed. It was an unusual
period. Every few hours a swell of fog would
pour through the mountain passes from the di-
rection of the sea and settle in the impact basin.
The wind would finally dispel the fog, giving us
an hour of clearer weather — still dull gray —
before the next fog layer, sitting over the sea-
coast, would become deep enough to pour over
the passes onto us again.

The Twin Otter from Resolute was sup-
posed to come in on one particular evening
and take out our camp, but this fog-clear-fog
weather situation meant that landing was im-
possible. With 24 hours of daylight the plane
might arrive at any hour of the "night." By mid-
night our weather had improved marginally and
the sun made the northern sky dull red. This
was one of those boring waiting periods that are
part of arctic field work. As I wandered along
the bank of the swollen river I saw a flight of
nine eider ducks land on a gravel bank. They
consisted of adults and a couple of birds that
appeared somewhat small — like the young of
this season. They were the only living animals
I saw during this time at that camp, and were
grouping for the migration south — August 7.
It was time to leave the high arctic. D

The Plains Indian Bull-Boat

Specialized Transportation on
the Upper Missouri River

Bv James w. VanStone

Curatorof North American Archeology and Ethnology

In 1891 Frederic Ward Putnam, curator of the
Peabody Museum of American Archaeology
and Ethnology at Harvard, was appointed
chief of the Department of Ethnology and Ar-
chaeology for the World's Columbian Exposition
in Chicago. His task was to assemble a large
anthropological collection for the world's fair in
1893, and for this purpose field parties to various
parts of the world were directed to collect
ethnographic specimens and other materials
representing many different cultures.

Early in 1892 Putnam wrote to A. W. Fair-
banks of Fort Berthold, North Dakota, request-
ing that Fairbanks collect ethnographic speci-
mens from among the Plains Indian tribes of the
upper Missouri River region. This material was
apparently collected and shipped, but when it
was accessioned on October 31, 1893, by Field
Columbian Museum, established to house col-
lections gathered for the world's fair, the only
specimen that could be located was a bull-boat,*
an example of one of the most primitive skin-

* Catalog number 15568

covered canoes built by the Indians of North
America.

Bull-boats were not actually canoes, but
rather coracles similar to those used in Ireland
and by the ancient Britons. They were bowl-
shaped and suitable only for use on streams
where ferrying would be the primary require-
ment. Although all Plains Indians living near
streams probably once constructed bull-boats,
this form of vessel is associated most frequently
with the Mandan, Arikara, and Gros Ventre,
who used it to cross the Missouri River and its
tributaries.

Many boats from various parts of the world
were collected for the World's Columbian Expo-
sition and subsequently accessioned by Field
Columbian Museum (in 1906 renamed Field
Museurri of Natural History). In 1929 the
Museum donated a collection of 75 boats — one of
the finest assemblages of aboriginal water craft in
the world — to Chicago's Museum of Science and
Industry, apparently hoping to solve a storage
problem. Because that institution also had no
facilities for storing such a large collection, ar-

rangements were made to place the vessels in
temporary storage under the seats in Soldier
Field, across the street from Field Museum.
When new construction was undertaken at Sol-
dier Field in 1937, virtually the entire collection
was destroyed by the Chicago Park District "in
the belief that they had been used in the past for
pageants, festivals and parades and because of
their age were no longer usable."'

Field Museum's bull-boat was slated for in-
clusion in this collection of deaccessioned boats,
and in the catalog of the Department of An-
thropology is the notation that the specimen was
"sent to Rosenwald Industrial Museum
[Museum of Science and Industry] 12/13/28." For
reasons that are unclear but extremely fortunate,
the bull-boat was not included in the collection
stored in Soldier Field. It disappeared, however,

from Field Museum's collections and was redis-
covered only in 1968 when extensive renovations
were made to the building's fourth floor for the
newly created Department of Exhibition. When
found, the bull-boat was in a crate, perhaps in
anticipation of removal from the Museum. In
any event, it has been preserved and is one of the
few water craft remaining in the Museum's
North American Indian collections.

Wherever they occur, bull-boats are always
described as temporary craft constructed for spe-
cial purposes. Unlike the Eskimo kayak, from
which the skin cover can be removed because the
parts of the frame are rigidly lashed and pegged
together, bull-boats were usually built according
to bark canoe methods, whereby the covering
was part of the structure holding the framework
together.^

Field Museum's specimen has shallow, flar-
ing sides and is covered with cowhide (with the
hair side on the exterior) rather than with the
buffalo hide ordinarily associated with tra-
ditional craft. The vessel has a diameter of ap-
proximately 51 inches and is about 20 inches deep
in the center. The rim is made of overlapping
willow branches, lashed together at intervals
with strips of willow root; the cowhide is also
lashed to the rim with root strips. Below the rim
on two sides and running in the same direction
are more strips. The framework is made of bent
willow branches placed at right angles to one
another in more or less haphazard positions.
Where they cross, these branches are lashed to-
gether with strips of cloth (fig. 2). It seems
clear that the craft was built up on the skin.

Over the years, as the cowhide has dried,
the supporting framework has twisted and
slipped; some branches have punctured the
hide. When it was new, the boat was probably
somewhat deeper than now; the sides were less
flaring, and the shape more regular. Neverthe-
less, it is obvious that the vessel is not well made;
Fairbanks, in fact, cautioned Putnam in a letter of
September 20, 1892, that "this boat is really not a
very good specimen of a bull-boat but it was the
best I could obtain at the time."^

Early travellers on the Missouri River and its

tributaries admired the versatility of the bull-
boat and described it in considerable detail. One
of the earliest of these descriptions, written by a
member of the Lewis and Clark expedition, is of
vessels made by the Arikara and Mandan.
These are made in the following manner: two
sticks of an inch and a quarter in diameter are
tied together so as to form a round hoop, which
serves for the brim, while a second hoop, for the
bottom of the boat, is made in the same way; both
are secured by sticks of the same size from the
sides of the hoops, fastened by thongs at the
edges of the hoops and at the interstices of the
sticks; over this frame the skin is drawn closely
and tied with thongs, so as to form a perfect
basin, 7 feet 3 inches in diameter, 16 inches deep,
with 16 ribs of cross- sticks, and capable of carry-
ing six or eight men with their loads.*
Although this account appears to suggest
that the vessels described had rigid frames, it is
probable that once constructed, their covers
could not be removed without collapsing the
framework. These boats were also considerably
larger than most craft of this type. On August 8,
1806, three members of the Lewis and Clark ex-
pedition constructed such a boat in order to de-
scend the Yellowstone River: "In these frail ves-
sels they embarked, and were surprised at the
perfect security in which they passed through

the most difficult shoals and rapids of the river,
without ever taking in water, even during the
highest winds. "^

Another, somewhat later, description is
provided by E. T. Denig, a trader on the upper
Missouri from 1833 to 1856. Noting that Arikara
bull-boats were used for crossing the Missouri,
he went on to say that

The body of the boat is made of willows, bent
round in the form of a basket and tied to a hoop of
the same at the top, which hoop is about three or
four feet in diameter. The hide of a buffalo, either
fresh off the animal's back, or if dry, well soaked
in water, is stretched over the frame, the hair
inside. It is then turned upside down, dried, and
sometimes smeared over with tallow. *

Other early observers also noted that the hair
often faced in rather than out, as it does on Field
Museum's boat.

Interesting and instructive drawings of
bull-boats were made by Charles Bodmer, the
artist who accompanied Prince Maximilian of
Wied on his travels through the Plains region in
1832-1834 (fig.l). and by Rudolph Friederich
Kurz, whose drawings of women carrying bull-
boats were made in 1851 (fig. 3). These illus-
trations, together with the descriptions just
given, suggest a more precise method of con-
struction than is to be found in Field
Museum's specimen.

As might be imagined, the propelling of a
bowl-shaped vessel required a specialized tech-
nique. Denig's description is especially graphic:
Usually these boats are propelled by the women,
one in each boat, which also contains the meat of
the same [buffalo] cow whose hide made the
canoe. She uses a paddle in front making a paw-
ing motion directly under the boat which turns
half round to alternate sides at each stroke of the
paddle. ''
In his letter to Putnam quoted earlier, Fair-

banks described the paddling of a bull-boat as
follows:

// used by a single person, he takes his place in
the boat to one side, usually balanced by a stone
on the other side but I have seen them without.
Then [he] uses the paddle to pull himself forward
[and] at the same time as the paddle leaves the
water he gives it a tivist which offsets thecurrent
and keep[s] the boat directly across the river. The
first part of the stroke also is made upward to-
wards the current as well as forward.
Famed photographer Edward S. Curtis,
who visited the Mandan about 1907, provides an
obviously posed but informative view of a
woman paddling a bull-boat (fig. 4).

Denig emphasized that although the bull-
boat was usually associated with women, both
sexes were expert at this type of navigation.
Parties of both [sexes] go for some distance up
the Missouri in the summer when the hair of the
animal is not seasonable, kill buffalo, make
canoes of the hide, put meat in and each one
paddles his boat to the village. Fifty, sixty, or a
hundred canots can be seen, all loaded, manned
or womaned by a single paddler, plying their
way even in high wind down the rapid and
dangerous current of the Missouri. '
In his letter to Putnam, Fairbanks reported
that he had seen vessels similar to the one he
collected cross the Missouri loaded with three
women, a child, and many bags of flour without
seeming to be affected by a rapid current. In 1847
Charles Larpenteur, a fur trader on the upper
Missouri, observed a party of 22 Arikaras going
to war against the Sioux in 11 bull-boats.'

There were, however, some drawbacks to
these versatile water craft. Alexander Henry and
David Thompson, fur traders writing at the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century, observed that
although these boats were capable of carrying
great loads, it was necessary to unload them once
each day and dry them in the sun or over a fire;
otherwise they would become waterlogged and
sink.'"

Temporary or emergency water craft, com-
mon among North American Indians, varied
from relatively simple vessels like the bull-boat
to sizeable boats with crudely constructed but
rigid or semi-rigid frames. One of the more com-
plex forms was used by Eskimos living along the
Kuskokwim River in southwestern Alaska; in the
fall they moved up tributaries by canoe to hunt
large game animals. After hunting for a month or
more, they cached their small canoes to be
picked up during the winter and the hunters
assembled their catch near a stream where a boat
was built for the return trip. The frame of the
new boat was constructed of spruce or alder and
covered with the skins of freshly killed caribou or

bear. Its size depended on the success of the
hunters. Although these vessels were undoubt-
edly clumsy, they were also very flexible and
thus able to safely negotiate swift streams,
bouncing off the projecting rocks that were an
ever-present hazard."

One vessel of this type, seen at the village of
Kwethluk on the lower Kuskokwim River in the
spring of 1956, was of modified-traditional form
but appeared to resemble closely the type of craft
used in aboriginal times (fig. 5). This boat was
large, approximately 30 feet long but less than
two feet deep, and similar to the traditional Es-
kimo umiak, being pointed at both ends. The
frame, made of roughly worked strips of alder
wood, was nailed together and covered with
bear skins, one of which is shown in the photo.

NOTES

1. Letter of April 19, 1938, from E.I. Kelly, director of Spe-
cial Services, Chicago Park District, to J.W. Block, regis-
trar. Museum of Science and Industry.

2. Adney and Chapelle, 1964, p. 219.

3. Department of Anthropology files, accession 55.

4. Coues, 1893, vol. 3, p. 1,172.

5. Ibid.

6. Denig, 1961, pp. 51-52.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.

9. Larpenteur, 1933, p. 213.

10. Henry and Thompson, 1897, p. 181.

11. Oswalt, 1963, pp. 126-27.

REFERENCES

Adney, Edwin T. and Howard I. Chapelle
1964 The Bark Canoes and Skin Boats of North America.
Museum of History and Technology, Smithsonian
Institution. Washington, D.C.

The use of nails in constructing the frame doubt-
less made it more rigid than would have been the
case with the skin or root lashing used in aborig-
inal times. The vessel's shallow depth was
characteristic of its type.

The Plains Indian bull-boat was obviously a
less ambitious craft. Some were even too small to
carry a person, but were intended to be loaded
with cargo and towed by a swimmer. Although
the previously described vessels encountered by
the Lewis and Clark expedition were apparently
very large, specimens preserved in museum col-
lections indicate that a craft more than five feet in
diameter and made of more than one skin was
extremely rare. Most examples are built on a
single skin and are approximately the size of
Field Museum's boat. D

Coues, Elliott, ed.
1893 History of the Expedition under the Command of Lewis
and Clark. 4 vols. N.Y.
Curtis, Edward S.
1907-30 The North American Indians. 20 vols. Norwood,
Mass.
Denig, Edwin T.
1961 Five Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri. Univ. of Okla-
homa Press.
Henry, Alexander and David Thompson
1897 New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northivest.
Ed. by Elliott Coues. 3 vols. N.Y.
Larpenteur, Charles

1933 Forty Years a Fur Trader on the Upper Missouri. The
Personal Narrative of Charles Larpenteur 1833-1872.
Chicago.
Oswalt, Wendell H.
1963 Mission of Change in Alaska. Eskimos and Moravians on
the Kuskokwim. The Huntington Library, San
Marino, California.
Thwaites, Reuben G., ed.
1904-07 Early Western Travels, 1784-1897. 32 vols. Cleve-
land.

Author Robert Timm

with mounted skeleton

of kangaroo rat that

had been cleaned by

feeding dermestid

beetles.

DERMESTIDS

The remarkable ability of
these tiny beetles to strip
bones clean of flesh has been
turned to the advantage of

By Robert M. Timm
Assistant Curator and Head,
Division of Mammals

Curiously, the busiest room at Field
Museum is one of the least known. It
houses thousands of workers who go un-
complainingly about their task 24 hours a day,
seven days a week, 52 weeks out of the year.
The name of this room, tucked away on the
third floor, is "the Bug Room" — a matter of
irony, since it's located in the Division of
Mammals, not in Insects.

The solution to this seeming conundrum is
simplicity itself: In the Bug Room are cages of
various sizes, each containing hundreds or
thousands of matchhead-size beetles of the
species Dermestes maculatus, all gnawing happily
away at the carcasses of dead animals. In return
for the free meal, these carrion eaters are per-
forming an invaluable service to the Museum
and to science: they are able to clean an animal
skeleton of its flesh more efficiently than any
other way — chemical or biological — known to
science. Given the time and the right condi-
tions, such as humidity and temperature, an
army of dermestids can reduce the body of a
shrew, a dog, or a horse (even, theoretically, a
whale!) to a gleaming skeleton, still articulated

{i.e., with its bones still properly intercon-
nected). Muscles and fat are all grist for the
dermestids' gastronomic mill — leaving the
bone, eschewed as it were, rather than chewed.

Since science first recognized the animal
skeleton as something to be preserved and
studied in a systematic fashion, scientists have
looked for ways of cleaning from the bones the
extraneous tissues that surround them in life. In
former times, the carcass was simply soaked in
water until the bacterial action broke down the
soft tissues; then began the tedious manual pro-
cess of picking and scraping off the remaining
bits of tissue. Not only was this tiring and
time-consuming, the results were never satis-
factory. If the bacterial decomposition went on
too long, the bones became disarticulated and
teeth fell out. Too little soaking meant that extra
time was needed for the hand-cleaning stage,
and tendons and ligaments usually required
more attention. The end result was poorly
cleaned, piecemeal material.

So zoologists were constantly on the look-
out for a better method, and they experimented
with ants, clothes moth larvae, mealworms.

Dermestes
maculatus (larva left,
adult right), some-
times called the leather
beetle, is the dermestid
species used for clean-
ing skeletons at Field
Museum. Larvae grow
to slightly more than
Vz inch long, adults
are somewhat smaller.
Drawings by Rosanne
Miezio.

crawfish, marine isopods and other biological
methods — to say nothing of corrosive chemi-
cals. All had serious drawbacks. Then, in the
1870s, in France, dermestid beetles were tried,
and they came through with winning colors.
About sixty years ago dermestids came into use
in American museums, and today colonies of
these beetles are standard equipment wherever
larger collections of vertebrate skeletons are
maintained.

Dermestid beetles, which constitute the

family Dermestidae, are worldwide in distribu-
tion, with about 700 known species — 125 in the
United States and 25 in Illinois. About 50 have
reputations as pests of stored animal and plant
products, consuming everything from Jello to
rugs to wool sweaters to butterfly collections.
Of these dermestids, a few have proven useful
to scientists as bone cleaners; some don't adapt
well to colonization, however (whole skeletons
are cleaned efficiently only with self-perpetuat-
ing "colonies" of hundreds or thousands of in-

U.S. dime shows rela-
tive size of
beetle grub and tiny,
partially disarticulated
shrew skeleton, cleaned
by the
beetles. 15

Scanning electron

microscope photos of D .

macula tus: (above,

left) head of first instar,

or growth phase, of

larva magnified 125

times; (above, right)

head of first larval

instar X520; (opposite

page, top left)

urticating, or irritant,

hairs that cover the

grub'sbodyX690;(this

page, below) head of

adult X33. Photos by

Robert Timm.

dividuals); others are not efficient enough in
cleaning up soft tissues or are too rough with
the bony parts.

Dermestes maculatus, the dermestid species
we use at Field Museum, is commonly known
as the leather beetle, because of its special fond-
ness for leather and fur. (Before effective insec-
ticides were developed it was a serious pest in
industries that dealt in these products. ) When

properly cared for, D. maculatus is highly pro-
lific; a female may lay 500 or more eggs; these
eggs hatch two to ten days later into grubs,
which grow to adulthood in six to nine weeks.
The larval period may be protracted for years if
the temperature and humidity are not optimal
and food is scant.

The newly hatched larvae, 1mm long (1/25
inch), are voracious eaters, and an army of

Timm brushes beetles
from cleaned kangaroo
head. Surgical mask
prevents inhalation of
dust-size particles of
dried beetle exoskele-
ton, larva setae (hairs),
and excreta that per-
vade air of Bug Room .
Prolonged exposure
may result in allergic
reaction.

grubs can reduce a shrew, or mole, or bat to a
skeleton overnight; a horse may take a few
weeks. The larvae molt six or seven times, and
when fully grown at 15mm are ready to pupate.
When this time comes, they bore into whatever

Dermestid adults and
larvae at work on squir-
rel head. 17

Timm in Bug Room

with largest of several

dermestiacolony cages.

The cage lids as well as

the double doors to the

Bug Room are precision

sealed.

material is at hand, finding a snug, isolated spot
to lie dormant for 7 to 14 days. One of the ex-
traordinary facts about the dermestid is the
ability of this pupating grub to bore through the
hardest material — even through the mortar and
stonework of walls; lead pipes, cables, and elec-
trical fuses have proven notably vulnerable to
them. Hakluyt's Travels records that in 1593 a
ship carrying a cargo of dead penguins was
made unseaworthy by the hundreds of thou-
sands of tunnels bored into the wooden hull by
pupating dermestid larvae (after feeding on the
penguins).

Cleaning the bones with dermestids is both
good husbandry and an art; it is not simply a
matter of throwing the bones to the bugs. Be-
fore being placed in a beetle colony, the animal's
body is skinned, eviscerated, and the larger
muscle masses removed. The beetles prefer to
feed on tissue that is well dried — but not too

dry. Temperature and humidity control are also
critical, and the beetles are extremely sensitive
to mold and mites; either can wipe out a colony
overnight. At the Field Museum we use dermes-
tids not only for cleaning the skeletons of mam-
mals, but also those of birds, reptiles, amphibians,
and fish — dried fish seems to be their favorite.

But we must pay the price for this wonder-
ful talent: since dermestids will nibble on just
about anything that is dead (including Egyptian
mummies), natural history museums must take
special care that their dermestid guests are
housed in carefully sealed quarters. The Bug
Room has a double set of tightly fitting doors
and each colony container (commonly a tropical
fish aquarium a few cubic feet in volume) has a
dermestid-proof lid.

The beetles also pose a unique health prob-
lem for technicians who must work with them.
Persons exposed to the room's air over a period
of time may develop a host of disagreeable
symptoms that are an allergic reaction to sub-
stances in the beetle's system: itching of the
skin, hives, irritation of the eyes and respiratory
passages, cold sweat, weakness, fever, head-
ache, and nausea are all part of the syndrome.
An allergic person who is overexposed to the
room's atmosphere may even go into serious
anaphylactic shock of the sort that can befall a
bee-sting victim.

The allergic reaction is the result of breath-
ing microscopic particles of dead beetle exo-
skeletons, molted grub skins with their fuzz of
irritant hairs, and excreta — all floating in the air
as a fine, impalpable dust. The only protection
against this insidious hazard is to wear a surgi-
cal mask.

What good are all these old bones? Does
anyone ever look at them? The answer is a re-
sounding YES. In the past year, the mammal col-
lection received some 800 visitor-days of use by
professionals (in addition to that by our own
staff), and we sent out almost 100 loans of
specimens to scientists at other institutions. The
loan and visitor use of the Field Museum collec-
tion is one of the busiest such arrangements in
the scientific world. During this 12-month
period, scientists in 28 states and 11 foreign
countries made use of it — including mam-
malogists, anatomists, archaeologists, paleon-
tologists, anthropologists, and veterinarians. In
recent years, an annual average of more than 40
published technical papers and scholarly books
have involved research based on the study of
our specimens — many of which had been beau-
tifully "prepared" by the remarkable dermes-
tids. Once looked upon as just a pest, Dermestes
maculatus has risen to become a valued tool in
the pursuit of scientific knowledge. D

Ayer Film Lectures

March and April
James Simpson Theatre
Saturdays, 1:30 pm

The Spring Edward E. Ayer Film Lectures are offered each
Saturday in March and April. Please take special notice of the
new, earlier starting time — 1:30 pm. These 90-minute travel
films are narrated by the filmmakers themselves, and are rec-
ommended for adults. Admission is free at the Museum's
barrier- free West Entrance, located on the ground floor. Handi-

March6

"Footloose in Newfoundland,"
by Tom Sterling

A visit to Newfoundland brings you the
wonders of nature — the great fiords,
bird colonies of gannets and kittywak.es,
whales, moose, and tundra plant life.
Sterling also introduces you to the people
of Newfoundland — their families, "out-
ports," and daily life.

March 13

"Switzerland," by Ric Dougherty
Visit Chateau-D'Oex, a tiny hamlet
of Swiss chalets, ride up Mount Rigi,
and trek to the Matterhorn. Watch the
Reynaud family making Gruyere
cheese, and stay to welcome the cele-
brants from Vivey of The Feast of the
Wine Growers, Europe's greatest folk
festival.

March 20

"In the Footsteps of Richard Hallibur-
ton," by William Stockdale
From London to Spain, to India and
Khyber Pass, we follow in the footsteps
of adventurer Halliburton (1900-1939).
He climbed the Matterhorn, swam the
Hellespont, and sailed a junk out of
Hong Kong, never to be heard from
again. Join Stockdale as he retraces
Halliburton's travels.

March 27

"China After Mao," by Jens Bjerre
This fascinating film invites you to sail
down the beautiful Likian River, explore
giant caverns, tour Peking, and take a
train ride through China to Kwangchow
(Canton). Bjerre also explores the many
changes in China since the death of Mao
— changes which have deeply affected
each individual with new freedom.

capped persons have access to the theatre via this entrance.
Doors open at 12:45 pm for Museum members. When the
theatre has reached full seating capacity, the doors will be
closed by Security personnel in compliance with fire
regulations.

April 3

"The Galapagos," by John Wilson
A devoted naturalist and cinema-
tographer, Wilson exploreSithe
Archipelago of Columbus — better
known as the Galapagos. Because these
islands are isolated, they are home to
some of the world's most remarkably
adapted wildlife. Scenes include the
courting of the albatross, a climb to the
top of Volcan Fernandina, and a trip to
Alcedo Crater — home of the Galapagos
Tortoise.

April 10

"Paris and the Seine,"
by Kathy Dusek

The film begins in the hills of Burgundy,
then on to the medieval city of Troyes.
See Paris at sunrise, the flower market,
and the Louvre. Visit Rouen and hear
the story of Joan of Arc. Finally we
arrive at Normandy and Le Havre —
totally rebuilt since World War II.

April 17

"South and East Africa,"
by Ted Bumiller

An exciting film safari to the great con-
tinent of Africa. Game preserves abound
with wildlife — elephants, leopards, and
crocodiles. Watch fishermen catch the
200-pound Nile perch; climb Kiliman-
jaro, visit Nairobi, and meet Africa's
many peoples.

April 24

"Himalayan Odyssey,"
by Frank Klicar

The Himalayas are the meeting place
for Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam.
Pilgrims seek spiritual enlightenment
at Bhaktipur in Nepal, Rishikesh on
the Ganges, and at the Tibetan monas-
leryof Leh. Village activities center on
grain planting and harvesting, process-
ing tea, making rugs, raising livestock,
and paper-making.

«?«','

119

Gone Fishing

In the Gtdf of Honduras

By Robert Karl Johnson and David W. Greenheld
Photos courtesy of the authors

Cabins overlooking reef

crest at Long Cay,

Glovers Reef.

rystal clear water, multihued coral ram-
parts, the continuous line of surf on the
windward reef, palm-covered cays seem-
ingly suspended between the blue of sky and
sea — these are what come to mind when think-
ing of the coral reefs of the Gulf of Honduras.
But for those of us who are studjdng the fishes
of the western Caribbean, there are additional
images and rewards: the discovery of species
new to science, captures of rare species known
from few individuals, and the chance to learn
about the life histories, ecology, and distribution
of these and other coral reef fishes not previously
studied. It is the lure of these opportunities that
has caused us to return to the western Carib-
bean each of the past 11 years.

Our association with the nation of Belize
and the western Caribbean began in 1970,
when one of the authors (Greenfield) moved to
Northern Illinois University from California.
There existed at NIU the opportunity to help
establish a program in tropical biology to be

Robert Karl Johnson is curator of fishes and chairman of the
Department of Zoology at the Field Museum; he is also
adjunct associate professor of biological sciences at Northern
Illinois University. David W. Greenfield is professor of
biological sciences at Northern Illinois University and is a
research associate, in zoology, of the Field Museum.

taught in Belize. Glovers Reef, an atoll 28 miles
off Belize, has been since 1970 the site of a tropi-
cal marine biology course, which has drawn
students from across the United States and
Canada. Sampling of the Belize marine fish
fauna also began in 1970.

Our collaboration on western Caribbean
fishes began in 1975, with an expedition to the
Miskito Coast of Honduras, a venture jointly
sponsored by Field Museum, NIU, and the
Museum of Zoology of the University of Michi-
gan. We have since returned to Belize on numer-
ous occasions, to teach the course in coral reef
biology and to continue our investigations of
the shorefishes of the Gulf of Honduras. Our
collections to date number 382 stations, an
estimated 10,000 lots,* and more than 100,000
specimens. These collections, all deposited
at Field Museum, are without peer for the
western Caribbean.

Belize, with an area of some 8,866 square
miles, has a population of about 122,000. To the
east lies the Caribbean, to the north the Yucatan
peninsula of Mexico, to the west and south,
Guatemala. Geographically diverse despite its
small size, Belize has elevations ranging from

*A lot is all specimens of a single species collected at the same
station. Fifty or more species are often taken at a single
station on the coral reefs of Belize.

sea level to about 3,680 feet inland and a mean
annual rainfall ranging from 50 inches in the
north to 220 inches further south. The flatter
inland areas are covered with broad expanses of
savannah. Hardwood forests are widespread,
although much of the hardwood has been cut
for timber or removed (by burning) to create
farmland; in many places the tangled secondary
undergrowth has formed dense jungle. The
Maya Mountains running along the southwest-
ern edge of Belize are blessed with many beauti-
ful clear swift streams, waterfalls, caves, and
tropical pine forest.

The entire coastal area is bordered by
mangrove swamps, many of which connect
to inland lagoons, providing a gradient from
brackish to fresh water. Eight to twenty-five
miles offshore lies the second longest barrier
reef in the world, extending southward from
the Yucatan peninsula some 168 miles into the
Gulf of Honduras.

Offshore, between the mainland and the
barrier reef, the waters tend to be clearer and
saltier than along the coast; however, during the
rainy season this zone receives vast volumes of
freshwater runoff from the large tropical rivers,
and its waters are more turbid and less saline
than those of locations further offshore. Innu-
merable mangrove-covered cays are to be found
here, often with shores of coral rubble covered
with extensive algal mats and surrounded by
vast beds of turtle grass.

There are three atolls in Belize (of 10 atolls
or atoll-like formations in the entire Atlantic):
Turneffe Islands, Lighthouse Reef, and Glovers
Reef. Turneffe, which is closest to the barrier
reef, has the most extensive land area, including
a vast lagoon occupied almost throughout by
mangrove swamp. Lighthouse Reef and Glov-
ers Reef are farther offshore, more oceanic in
character {e.g., more saline, less turbid waters,
etc.) and have the most extensive coral de-
velopment. Their lagoons contain numerous
coral-patch reefs, and precipitous dropoffs
occur on the outside of the encircling reef struc-
ture. Neither has large islands, though there are
a number of small cays at each, many thickly
beset with coconut palms.

To the southeast of Glovers Reef, some
90 miles across the Gulf of Honduras, lies the
island of Roatan, one of the Bay Islands. Unlike
anything found in Belize, Roatan is a high is-
land, with rocky shores meeting the sea as cliffs,
rocky reefs, beaches of cobble, and with inter-
spersed sandy beaches. Offshore lies a well
developed coral reef system with precipitous
dropoffs.

Thus, within a relatively small geographic
area are found a great variety of habitat types.

This summer, the authors will con-
tinue their studies in Belize and
Honduras. For the first time. Field
Museum is joining with Northern
Illinois University in offering
Museum members a unique oppor-
tunity to join in the study and explo-
ration of the reef systems of the Gulf
of Honduras. For further informa-
tion on this exciting program see
"Field Museum Tours," page 25.

The variety of habitats in Belize and
This variety contributes substantially to the
richness of the Belizean shorefish fauna, which
we estimate as nearly 500 species. Despite this
richness, the fishes of the western Caribbean
were very poorly sampled until the beginning of
our efforts. New knowledge of the blennioid
fishes, based on our sampling efforts, is illus-
trative of the gains we have made. In the past 11
years we have taken 60 species of "blennies"
(four distinct families) in Belize and Honduras;
40 of these were previously unknown from
Honduras, 27 unknown from Belize, 20 un-
known from the Caribbean coast of Central
America, and 4 were new species. A sixty-first
species, also unknown to science, is being given
formal scientific description by a colleague.

Honduras also offers the opportunity for the
biologist to ask ecological questions relating to
habitat restriction, distribution of diversity, and
the coherence and organization of species as-
semblages. Over the years we have attempted
to sample repeatedly from the full range of
habitat types present and in stratified fashion
over the depth range (to about 100 feet) practical
with conventional scuba.

Because of the course offered each summer

swarms of coral reef fishes* surrounding and
inhabiting patch reefs, among the more con-
spicuous because of their behavior are the ter-
ritorial species of damselfishes. Only several
inches long, these fishes are so pugnacious they
will take on virtually any invader of their terri-
tory, even nipping at a snorkeler's hand. Some
damselfish species establish and maintain algal
gardens from which they derive their food.
The typical day mode on a coral reef is a

Hogfish in nighttime shelter at base of patch reef in lagoon at Glovers Reef.

at Glovers Reef, our greatest concentration of
effort at a single location (noting that Glovers
Reef is a "location" 20 miles long by 6 miles
broad) has been at this atoll. Rising some 6,000
feet from the off-reef sea floor. Glovers Reef is
truly one of the finest reef structures in the trop-
ical Atlantic. In 1971 the Smithsonian Institution
sent a team of marine biologists throughout the
Caribbean in an effort to identify the "best"
coral reef site for possible study during the
International Decade of Ocean Exploration;
Glovers Reef was the team's choice.

The hundreds of patch reefs within the la-
goon at Glovers Reef provide excellent oppor-
tunities for one to view numerous fish species in
shallow water using only snorkeling gear. In the

picture of color and movement — grazing parrot-
fishes and surgeonfishes, nibbling and brows-
ing angelfishes and wrasses, actively territorial
or midwater damselfishes, butterfly fishes, mill-
ing schools of grunts and snappers, and many
others. The nocturnal picture is quite different,
for at night the day-active species are mostly
nestled into crevices. Conversely, the fishes ac-
tive at night are for the most part not readily
visible during the day, for they spend the day-
light hours hiding in coral caves and crevices.
Night-active species include the squirrel and

*"Fish," used in the plural sense, refers to more than one
individual of the same species; "fishes" refers to more than
one species.

soldierfishes, the cardinal fishes and sweepers.
This changing of the guard is just one of the
ways that make it possible for so many fish
species to coexist on a coral reef.

For both the snorkeler and the scuba diver,
the deeper reefs beyond the atoll rim offer ex-
ceptional beauty and excitement. The reef
slopes gently from the rim to the edge of the
dropoff with a system of ridges (spurs) and
channels (grooves) providing topographic relief.
At the edge of the dropoff the bottom seems to
curl over as it plunges downward to a depth of
several thousand feet in a jagged and terraced
wall. To swim off the edge is to experience the
dream of flight. Great concentrations of fishes
and other sea life seem to occur at and just off
the edge. Looking over it and into the "blue"
one may see schools of larger, predatory fishes
such as jacks, clouds of plankton-feeding
species such as the Creole wrasses, lumbering
porgies, chubs that seem always in a hurry, and
perhaps, with real luck, a sea turtle as it passes
gracefully by.

Until the advent of scuba and diving scien-
tists, the cryptic species inhabiting the deep-
reef and dropoff zones — species which spend

Emblemaria hyltoni
Johnson and Greenfield
1976, the filament
blenny, a species col-
lecteaby the authors in
1975 and still known
only from Isla Roatan,
Honduras. Drawing by
Zbigniew Jastrzebstci.

their lives hidden in concavities, crevices, caves,
and tubes — were all but unknowable. It is for
this reason that our greatest gains in knowledge
have included new light on "indwelling" spe-
cies of this zone, including the discovery of
species new to science.

In addition to our studies at Glovers Reef
we have been fortunate in being able to mount
collecting trips along the length of the Barrier
Reef, either cruising along the reef, stopping
at a different area each day, or concentrating
our studies on a particular site for periods of
a week or more. Other collecting trips have
taken us to numerous mainland sites, many
of the cays inside the barrier reef, and to
Turneffe and Lighthouse Reef.

The motorlsailer Christmas Birdarriving at Long Cay.

Grunts seek shelter in the reef by day and wander jar jroin the reef at night in search of food.

Our goals are both faunistic and ecological.
Eventually we hope to produce a book on the
fishes of the Gulf of Honduras, a work that will,
we believe, adequately characterize the western
Caribbean shorefish fauna. We are also inter-
ested in distribution of species and assemblages
of species on local and regional scales.

One result of our work thus far is the
recognition of marked habitat preference and
restriction in many of the small-bodied and
cryptic species; the restriction applies not just
to individual species but to groups of species.
Using a variety of grouping and statistical tech-
niques, we have been able to recognize and de-
fine groups of fishes that commonly co-occur.
This accomplished, we were able to correlate
the occurrence of these fish species groups with
the occurrence of specific habitat types, depths
of occurrence, and other phenomena. For the
"blennies," we now know what kinds of habitat
they occupy. Our data base seems sufficiently
large, our techniques sufficiently robust, so that
we can predict which species and group(s) of
species will be present in particular habitat
types. Except for extremely rare species, we
have been able to corroborate prediction with
subsequent observation and collecting. We are
now applying these techniques to several other

large groups of species.

The shorefishes of the tropical western At-
lantic are perhaps better known than those of
any tropical marine area comparable in size.
This knowledge notwithstanding, our studies
have shown that even at the most basic descrip-
tive levels in taxonomy and zoogeography we
have much to learn in the case of many groups.
This is particularly true of cryptic, "indwelling"
small-bodied fishes (those living in caves, cre-
vices, tubes, etc.) such as many of the blennies
and gobies. Species in just these two groups
may account for up to one-third of the esti-
mated 500 shorefish species in the Gulf of
Honduras and, for most, we know next to
nothing of their habitat requirements and life
history. Yet it is bottom-associated, habitat-
restrictive groups such as these that may have
the most to tell us about zoogeographic pattern
and history — for tropical Atlantic shorefishes.

Vital to this will be studies looking at dis-
tributions in terms of habitat specificity and
broad-scale habitat patchiness over a suitably
broad and diverse area. Because of the diversity
of habitats represented within relatively re-
stricted inshore to offshore distances, we be-
lieve that the Gulf of Honduras is an ideal area
in which to make such an attempt. D

Field Museum Tours for Members

Coral Reef Biology and Natural History
Explorations in the Western Caribbean

June 22-July 11

Included in the tour is a six-day stay at Glovers Reef, 28
miles offshore from Belize. Reef formations at Glovers are
among the Caribbean's most richly developed. Lectures and
field-trips, including snorkeling, will familiarize participants
with the mammals, invertebrates, fishes, sea birds, and algae
of this isolated, untouched coral-reef. Daily scuba diving is
available. The 50-foot motor sloop Christmas Bird wall take
us to and from the reef, where we will stay at Lomont's Glov-
ers Reef Village resort.

Our stay at Glovers will be followed by a four-day in-
depth exploration of the central Belize mainland, including
rain forests, the famed Blue Hole on the Hummingbird High-
way, a stay at the Blancanaeux Lodge atop Mountain Pine
Ridge, a visit to Rio Frio Cave and the Thousand Foot Falls, and
exploration of Mayan ruins at Xunantunich. Aiding us for the
four days will be Belize resident DoraWeyer, internationally
known naturalist and expert on bird identification.

Leading the tour will be Dr. Robert Karl Johnson, curator
of fishes and chairman of Field Museum's Department of Zool-
ogy; Dr. David W. Greenfield, research associate in the

;^|^:r i^

Museum's Division of Fishes and professor of biological sci-
ences at Northern Illinois University (NIU), and Dr. Norman A.
Engstrom, associate professor of biological sciences at North-
ern Illinois University. Three semester hours of undergraduate
or graduate credit in biological sciences are available from NIU
to tour participants. The tour will be limited to 10 partici-
pants. The price is $2,385, from New Orleans (per person,
double occupancy) .

If you wish additional details for any tour or
would like to be placed on a special mailing list,
please call Dorothy Roder, Tours manager, at
3Z2-8862, or write Field Museum Tours,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL
60605.

Ecuador and the Galapagos

March 11-25

The Galapagos Islands affect our imagination like no other
place on earth. Field Museum is pleased to offer its members
an opportunity to visit this remote archipelago under the ex-
pert guidance of Dr. John W. Fitzpa trick, associate curator and
head. Division of Birds. If you are a "birder" or a "photog-
rapher" this tour is a Utopia.

The price is $3,550 (per person, double occupancy). We
hope you will join us in one of the greatest adventures in travel.

Coming up...

Harbor of Belize City

David W. Greenfield

Australia Tour

August 23-September 12

Kenya Tour

September 11-October 1 25

for additional tours, please turn page

Field Museum Tours for Members

Grand Canyon Adventure

May 22-30

The Ancient Capitals of China

June 6-28

June 6: Departure from Chicago to San Francisco in time for
evening briefing.

June 7: Departure via Japan Airlines for flight to Tokyo.
June 8: Afternoon arrival in Tokyo; overnight at Nikko Narita
Hotel.

June 9: Flight to Peking, where we will spend 4 days, visiting
Imperial Palace, Temple of Heaven, Tien-an Square, and the

antique shop district; Ming emperor tombs, the Great Wall,
the Summer Palace, and the National Museum.
June 13: Overnight train ride to Zhengzhou, capital of Henan
Province, where we'll spend 3 days; in addition to sight-seeing,
we can rise early to participate in tai chi exercise groups in the
People's Park.

June 16: A short train ride takes us east to Kaifeng, where we'll
spend 2 days. The city is rarely visited by tourists; it's just at the
beginning of modernization, and we'll get a wonderful feeling
of Old China.

June 18: Two days in Luoyang, one of the oldest centers of
Chinese culture.

June 27: To Tokyo again, for a one-night stay before flying back
to the States.

At a small additional cost, you may stay longer injapan or
in Hawaii, at completion of the China tour.

Alaska Native Culture Tour

June 19-July 1

This 13-day tour begins with a flight from Seattle to Sitka,
Alaska, where we will spend two days and nights viewing old
Russian settlement buildings, Sheldon Jackson Museum, and
National Park Service exhibits. Our third, fourth, and fifth
nights will be aboard two yachts, which will take us to Admi-
ralty Island. We will see Tenakee Hot Springs, the native vil-
lages of Angoon and Hoonah, and make a tour of Glacier Bay.

All hotel accommodations will be first class; the two
yachts will accommodate 16 and 10 persons, respectively. Tour
rates to be announced.

Stanton R Cook, courtesy C/i/cago Tribune

If you wish additional details for any tour or
would like to be placed on a special mailing list,
please call Dorothy Roder, Tours manager, at
322-8862, or write Field Museum Tours,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL
60605.

Field Briefs

Continued from p. 3

the donor's name and the donor's giving,
as well.

Two brochures, "How To Remember
Field Museum in My Will" and "How I
Can Receive a Lifetime Income From My
Gift to Field Museum," are available free
upon request. Please write the Planned
Giving Office, or telephone, (312) 922-9410
ext. 858.

Prairie Workshop

The Fifth Northern Illinois Prairie Work-
shop will be held on March 13 at the Uni-
versity of Illinois Chicago Circle Campus.
Session titles will include Basic Concepts
in Prairie Ecology, Prairie as a Constructed
Landscape, Propogation of Prairie Flora,
Presettlement Natural History, Prairie
Management: Fire Ecology and Tech-
niques, Prairie Preservation, Prairie
Wildlife, Identification of Prairie Grasses
and Sedges, Prairie Wetlands, Methods of
Prairie Restoration, Linear Prairies, Esthe-
tics, Prairie Protection, Cemetery Prairie
Preservation, Prairie Interpretation, and
Prairie Management: Alternatives to
Burning. There will also be technical ses-
sions. Further information may be ob-
tained from Albert Rouffa, Department of
Biological Sciences, University of Illinois
Chicago Circle Campus, Box 4348,
Chicago, II 60680.

Solomon Gurewilz
(1899-1981)

Solomon Gurewitz, a volunteer in the
Department of Anthropology for some
twenty years, died in September at the
age of 82. Following his retirement in
1961 from a successful business career,
Gurewitz came to Field Museum as a
nearly full-time curatorial assistant —
without pay.

Within a month Gurewitz had taken
over responsibility for reorganizing one
of the former Chinese storerooms. He
cataloged, studied, found things for
visiting scholars, packed, cleaned,
selected things for loans, rearranged
other storerooms, and helped set up ex-
hibitions. He became expert in a number
of branches of Far Eastern art and cul-
ture. He often gave lectures and advice
to other students of those subjects.

About fifteen years ago, Gurewitz
managed to convince the Museum that a
very high priority should be given to
making a photographic record of its col-
lections. (Like most museums founded
before film and cameras became cheap,
we had never photographed or made
drawings of more than a small percent-
age of our holdings.) He organized a de-
partmental photographic studio with the

help of the Museum photographer, re-
learned the needed skills (he had once
run a small photo finishing business),
and set out single-handedly on a task
that had daunted several generations of
Museum employees. He and several
other volunteers have by now produced
many tens of thousands of excellent pic-
tures which have been duly filed and
mounted on the backs of the catalog
cards for those particular objects'.

Gurewitz was the first of his kind.

proof that a volunteer with the right at-
titude and skills could do the work of a
museum professional. Field Musuem has
established in his name a special fund for
the purchase of Oriental and other an-
thropological objects. Contributions may
be sent to the Vice President for De-
velopment. Checks should be made out
to Field Museum with a note specifying
that the gift is to be added to the Sol-
omon Gurewitz Memorial Fund.

Tibet Lecture by Edwin Bembaum

James Simpson Theatre

(West Entrance)

Sunday, February 21, 2:00 p.m.

To many, Tibet is a land of enchantment, a
land of holy men, towering peaks and
mystical legends. In this fascinating
illustrated lecture, "Hidden Valleys of
Tibetan Myth and Legend," author Edwin
Bembaum recounts the legend of
Shambhala — the source of James Hilton's
concept of "Shangri-La" in his novel Lost
Horizon. Bembaum explores Tibetan
myths and legends relating to the
mythical kingdom of Shambhala through
slides and tape recordings he made in
Nepal, India, and Sikkim.

Bernbaum has done extensive
research in comparative religion and
mythology. The Shambhala prophecies
originate in a set of more than 300 volumes
of ancient sacred texts called the Kangyur
and Tengyur, which are for Tibetans what
the Bible is for many Westerners. He has
returned to Nepal four times to gather
information and photograph ancient texts
and artworks. On one of his early trips.

Bernbaum met the Incarnate Lama of
Tengboche monastery, who knew of
Shambhala — a place where, legend
states, the best of Western and Eastern
culture — science, literature, music,
art — is preserved for the future.

On a later visit, Bernbaum learned of
a secret valley in the Himalayas not far
from Mount Everest. It was said to have
everything a person would need to live as
well as spiritual treasures which would
lead to enlightenment. He led a climbing
expedition over snowy mountains, steep
passes, and glaciers to find it. It was the
Khembalung Valley. Carpeted with
rhododendrons, it had a beautiful river
which flowed through meadows and pine
forests.

Author of "The Way to Shambhala,"
Bernbaum is a graduate of Harvard
University where he was president of the
Mountaineering Club. He is currently
pursuing his doctorate in Asian Studies at
the University of California at Berkeley.

Admission to the lecture is $3.00 for
Members and $5.00 for nonmembers.
Additional information is available by
calling 322-8854.

Tengboche Monastery, where Edwin Bernbaum first learned of Shambhala.
Photo by Edivin Bernbaum.

.'27

\ ELIZABETH BEST DEIS

721 SIMPSON
1^ EVANSTON ILL 60201

February & March at Field Museum

February 16 through March 15

New Exhibits

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast."
Opening April 24 in Hall 10. Plan now for the opening of this
spectacular new permanent exhibit, the biggest project of its
kind ever undertaken by Field Museum. The 15,000-square-
foot exhibit wll compare and contrast the life and culture of
the Northwest Coast Indians and the Eskimos. Many of the
2,500 articles to be displayed came from the original Colum-
bian Exposition of 1893, but the design concepts used by
Field Museum's Exhibition Department incorporate all the
newest techniques. The Learning Museum course beginning
in February and the Lecture Series in March have been
planned to deepen the visitor's appreciation of the exhibit.

Continuing Exhibits

"In the Shadow of the Pyramid." Stand inside the walls of
history in this new permanent exhibit area of the "Hall of
Ancient Egyptians." You may now enter tomb chapel rooms
built more than 4,000 years ago and a replica of the chapel of
Nakht on loan from the Metropolitan Museum of Art. You
may also view exhibits detailing life in prehistoric and early
historic eras of Egypt and photomurals explaining how the
tomb chapels came to Field Museum. Hall J, Ground Floor.

New Programs

"Hidden Valleys of Tibetan Myth and Legend." Edwin
Bembaum tells of his search for the legendary Tibetan king-
dom of Shambhala in a lecture illustrated with authentic
slides and tapes on Sunday, Feb. 21, at 2 p.m. in James
Simpson Theatre. This kingdom is the mystical basis of
Tibetan religion and the inspiration for James Hilton's novel,
Losf Horizon. Bembaum, author of The Way to Shambhala,
takes us to a hidden valley high in the Himalayas that he
discovered through studying ancient texts and personal con-
tact with a Tibetan Lama. This perilous journey symbolizes
the search for the mythical kingdom of Shambhala as well as
a psychological search for the inner self. Members: $3.00.
Nonmembers: $5.00. For more information, call 322-8854.

NORTinvEST Coast Lecture Series. "A Culture Develops."
Four Friday evening lectures by authorities on native cultures
of the Northwest. Beginning at 8 p.m., these individually
complete lectures are designed to deepen the viewer's ap-
preciation of the new permanent exhibit, "Maritime Peoples
of the Arctic and Northwest Coast." Entrance for the 8 p.m.
lectures will be through the West Entrance. Members:
$3.00. Nonmembers: $4.00.

March 5: "First Peoples of the North Pacific," K.R. Flad-
mark, Simon Fraser University.

March 12: "Pre-historic Peoples: Conquest of the Region,"
Don E. Dumond, University of Oregon.

Edward E. Ayer Film Lecture Series. These popular travel
films narrated by the filmmakers are shown every Saturday
at 1:30 p.m. in James Simpson Theatre during March and
April. The first film of the spring series will be Tom Sterling's
"Newfoundland," on March 6. The second feature will be
"Switzerland" by Ric Dougherty, on March 13. For other films
in this series see p. 19. The 90-minute films are free. Admis-
sion is through the West Door. Members receive priority
seating.

Weekend Discovery Programs. Tours, craft projects, slide
presentations, and films which use Field Museum exhibits as
a springboard for new insights into natural history topics.
Check Weekend Sheet available Saturday and Sunday at
Museum entrances for programs and their locations. Feb-
ruary's programs highlight the cultures of the Himalayan
area in conjunction with the lecture "Hidden Valleys of Ti-
betan Myth and Legend." March's "Film Features" are about
mammals from around the world.

Feb. 20 1:00 p.m. Himalaya: Life on the Roof of the

World. A "Film Feature."
1:30 p.m. Tibetan Life and Religion. Slide lec-
ture and tour.
Feb. 27 1:00 p.m. Tibet and The Royal Dancers and

Musicians of the Kingdom of Bhutan . Two
"Film Features" shown consecutively.
2:00 p.m. Costumes for the Sorcerer's Dance.
Tour.
March 6 1:30 p.m. Mzima: Portrait of a Spring. "Film

Feature" about animal life around a spring in
Kenya.
March 13 1:30 p.m. IVo/ves a«d IVoZ^n. A "Film Fea-
ture."

Continuing Programs

Volunteer Opportunities. Persons with scientific interests
and backgrounds are needed to work in various Museum
departments. Contact the Volunteer Coordinator, 922-9410,
ext. 360.

February and March Hours. The Museum is open 9 a.m.-
4 p.m., Monday -Thursday (until 5 p.m., beginning March 1);
9 a.m. -9 p.m., Friday; and 9 a.m. -5 p.m. Saturday and
Sunday.

The Museum Library is open weekdays 9 a.m. -4 p.m. Obtain
a pass at the reception desk, main floor. Closed February 15
and March 15.

Museum Telephone: (312) 922-9410

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin

March 1982

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor/ Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Kathryn Laughlin
Calendar: Mary Cassai
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

Board of Trustees

James J, O'Connor

chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gorden Bent
Bowen Blair
WiUard L. Boyd
Mrs. Robert Wells Carton
Stanton R. Cook
O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Marshall Field
Richard M. Jones
Hugo J. Melvoin
Charles F. Murphy, Jr.
Lorin I. Nevling, Jr
James H, Ransom
John S. Runnells
William L. Searle
Edward ByrOn Smith
Robert H. Strotz
John W. Sullivan
William G. Swartchild, Jr.
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Julian B. Wilkins
Blaine J. Yarrington

Life Trustees

Harry O. Bercher
William McCormick Blair
Joseph N. Field
Paul W. Goodrich
Clifford C. Gregg
Samuel Insull, Jr.
WiHiam V. Kahler
William H. MitcheD
John M. Simpson
J. Howard Wood

CONTENTS

March 1982

Volume 53, Number 3

Field Museum as Architecture

By William Burger

Chairman, Department of Botany

Tours for Members

Northwest Coast Indian Housing

By Daniel J. Joyce, staff member of the Maritime

Peoples of the Northwest Coast Project 8

Altiska Native Culture Tour for Members IS

Arts of Tide and Tundra:

An Arctic and Northwest Cotist Perspective

By Robert S. Grumet, Northwest Coast specialist.

Department of Education; and Anthony Pfeiffer,

Project Coordinator 16

Edward E. Ayer Film Lecture Series for

March and April 20

Nihoa Island

An Archaeological Mysteiy in the Hawaiian Chain

By Thomas J. Riley 21

Volunteers Honored

Honor Roll of Donors

Our Environment

March and April at Field Museum

Calendar of Coming Events

COVER

The Muse of Geology, in all her 8 1/2 foot splendor, is framed
by arches at the south end of the second floor's west balcony.
The regal figure is one of four, at each corner of Stanley Field
Hall, and is the work of Henry Hering (1874-1949), a New York
sculptor who studied under the famed Augustus Saint-
Gaudens. Neg. 79869. For more on the architectural delights of
Field Museum see "Field Museum as Architecture," by William
Burger, p. 3.

Field Museum of Nalunl History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, n. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Postmaster: f^ease send from 3579 to Field Museimi of Natural History,
Roosevelt Road at Uke Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605, ISSN:C015-0703. Second class postage
paid at Ctiicago, U.

FIELD MUSEUM AS ARCHITECTURE

By William Burger
Chairman, Department of Botany

/have always felt a special fascination for
large or unusual buildings. The fact that I
grew up in New York City accounts for
some of this interest; but it was an introductory
college course in the history of architecture, fol-
lowed by a year and a half in Europe that really
got me hooked on the form and structure of
buUdings. So you can understand my delight in
working within the superb edifice that houses
the Field Museum of Natural History.

Ours is one of the world's largest museum
buildings, structurally completed in 1920 and
covering an area of some 700 by 440 feet; it is
also unusual in that it has not grown by the
accretion of new wings or additions — ours is a
single, unified structure. The colonnaded ex-
terior and well proportioned symmetry help to
unify the building's huge dimensions. The ele-
vated base, framed within a terrace, adds to the
building's stature in its parklike setting. While

Southward view along
east balcony, second
floor 3

Stanley Field Hall

through fish eye lens.

Photo by William

Burger

the exterior is impressive, the most dramatic as-
pect, for me, is within. Passing through the
large Ionic columns and bronze doors into Stan-
ley Field Hall is an awesome experience. The
great size of the central hall, its carefully propor-
tioned arcades and columns, the rich decoration
in low relief, and the multifaceted skylight
create a magnificent interior space.

There is something else 1 have found un-
usual about our building: a great many books on
the architecture of Chicago and the Midwest
make no mention of the building or its central
hall. Even a recently published encyclopedia-
like volume on architecture in the Midwest and
the South includes McCormick Place, the
Museum of Science and Industry, the Water
Filtration Plant, and other Chicago buildings,
but it fails to include Field Museum. Why is it
that Field Museum and Stanley Field Hall have
been so ignored?

The answer may be that our building has
the "wrong religion." It is a neoclassical struc-
ture in a city where new and indigenous archi-
tectural directions were forged. Chicago's new
buildings were part of an effort to break away
from the neoclassical style and to blaze new
trails. For most of this century, architects and
those writing about architecture have been so
deeply immersed in the esthetics of Chicago's
bold new architecture that our neoclassical
buildings have been all but ignored.

Our building is eminently functional.
Grand symmetrical stairways serve traffic flow
between the two major exhibit floors; eight
smaller stairwells (four in the corners and four
near the center) interconnect all four main
floors. The general exhibit halls conform to the
rectangular shape of the building in an easily
understood and symmetrical pattern, with the
largest halls at the east and west ends. The halls

range from 14 to 22 feet high, and the smaller
halls, of which there are 26, average 8,000
square feet in area. Skylights and lightwells
were part of the building's original design, but
since even indirect sunlight is damaging to
many materials, this light source is no longer
used for exhibits. This has permitted "filling"
the lightwells with as many as four floors for
additional specimen-storage and research
space. The great strength of the piers, in what is
essentially a masonry building, permitted the
additional load and in the past decade about
100,000 square feet of floor space were added to
the building's original 775,000. Thus, both our
public areas and the research/specimen-storage
areas can be measured in acres. So it is emi-
nently clear that our building is unusually large
as well as very functional; but do we have one
that merits more serious consideration as a
major architectural structure?

The exhibit halls on the first and second
floors are separated from the central hall by
broad walkways, delimited by Ionic columns on
the first floor and with arcades on the second.
These walkways prevent the exhibits from in-
truding into the central hall and, I believe, it is
this central space in particular that makes our
building something to brag about. The large
volume of the hall (70 feet wide, 75 feet high,
and 300 feet long), the white interior, and ample
skylights produce an almost luminous quality.

Much of the ornamentation in the hall is
quite subtle, providing a variety of textures
without intruding into the space. With the
elephants, totem poles, and dinosaur skeletons
set off to the side, the hall retains its open
spaciousness. (In older photographs of Stanley
Field Hall with the elephants placed centrally
and with a clutter of small exhibits the hall ap-
pears more confining.) The fountains add a
steady pleasant sound, masking minor noises
and helping visitors in adjacent exhibit halls to
orient themselves. These aesthetic features and
the grand scale are not the whole story; this is
functional architecture. Stanley Field Hall is the
geographic center of the main exhibit floors; it is
both the starting point and terminus for most
museum visits.

Occasionally, I like to look down from the
second floor balcony and watch the reactions of
apparent first-time visitors. Many of them stop
dead in their tracks shortly after entering our
central hall. Then their heads begin to turn
around like radar antennas, taking it all in. The
impact of a great room, like any work of art, can
be a deeply moving experience. One has a simi-
lar reaction in the Pantheon of Rome, the
Gothic cathedrals of France, and richly deco-
rated rococo churches of southern Germany.

When you enter a building with an exceptional
interior space, you know it. The size, luminos-
ity, and strong symmetry of Stanley Field Hall
together create the kind of impact that can be
experienced in few other buildings.

Some of the world's most famous architec-
tural landmarks have very little enclosed space
— the great mausoleums in particular, such as
the Taj Mahal and the Pyramids of Egypt. But
many famous buildings are noted primarily for
their internal spaces. If the creation of interior
space is one of the measures of a great building
— then we do indeed have a great building.
Now that there is greater interest in architec-
tural styles that have been long out of favor,
perhaps we can expect greater appreciation of
our building. The latest edition oi Chicago's Fa-
mous Buildings (edited by Ira J. Bach, 1980) not
only includes Field Museum for the first time
but also refers to Stanley Field Hall as "one of
the most impressive monumental interior
spaces in Chicago." I see no reason to be so
provincial. Why not call it what it is: one of the
finest large interior spaces in the world? D

Stately Ionic columns
at south end of Stanley
Field Hall

Field Museum Tours for Members

Young China welcomes you

The Ancient Capitals of China

June 6-28

The Unique Itinerary, rarely granted by
the Chinese authorities, includes the
most significant sites of early Imperial
China and will give an opportunity to
explore in depth the civilization which
characterized one of the oldest and
longest-lived societies on earth. We will
have the opportunity to observe the
emergence of this remarkable culture
and its development to a level which sur-
passed its contemporaries in the Western
World.

June 6: Departure from Chicago to San
Francisco in time for evening briefing.
June 7: Departure via Japan Airlines for
flight to Tokyo.

June 8: Afternoon arrival in Tokyo; over-
night at Nikko Narita Hotel.
June 9: Flight to Peking, where we will
spend 4 days, visiting Imperial Palace,
Temple of Heaven, Tien-an Square, and
the antique shop district; Ming emperor
tombs, the Great Wall, the Summer
Palace, and the National Museum.
June 13: Overnight train ride to
Zhengzhou, capital of Henan Province,
where we'll spend 3 days; in addition to
sight-seeing, we can rise early to partici-
pate in tai chi exercise groups in the
6 People's Park.

Stafilon Cook, courtesy of Ch/cago Ttibune

June 16: A short train ride takes us east

to Kaifeng, where we'll spend 2 days. The

city is rarely visited by tourists; it's just

at the beginning of modernization, and

we'll get a wonderful feeling of Old

China.

June 18: Two days in Luoyang, one of the

oldest centers of Chinese culture.

June 20: A westward train ride takes us

to Xian, our home for 4 days. This is

where the fabulous clay horses and war-

riors of the "Great Bronze Age of China"
exhibit were discovered.
June 24: We'll travel by air to Shanghai
where we will spend four days, including
a one-day side trip to Souchou, silk-
manufacturing center
June 27: To Tokyo again, for a one-night
stay before flying back to the States.

At a small additional cost, you may
stay longer in Japan or in Hawaii, at
completion of the China tour.

Our tour leader is Mr. Phillip H. Wood-
ruff, Ph.D. candidate in Chinese history
at the University of Chicago. This is Mr.
Woodruff's third time as a Field Museum
China tour leader and his fourth visit to
that country in two years. Cost of the tour
is $3,850 (per person, double occupancy).

Coming Up...

Australia Tour

August 23-September 12
(details to be announced)

Coral Reef Biology and

Natural History Explorations

in the Western Caribbean

June22-Julyll

The Richness of Marine Life and the
beauty of the offshore reefs and islands of
Belize and Honduras are unsurpassed in
the Atlantic tropics. Field Museum's
20-day tour of this region offers a unique
opportunity to explore and study tropical
marine and terrestrial ecosystems and, if
desired, to earn university credit for
doing so. Leading the tour will be three
professional marine biologists, each with
considerable field work in the Gulf of
Honduras and well acquainted with the
local flora and fauna.

Included in the tour is a six-day stay
at Glovers Reef, 28 miles offshore from
Belize. Reef formations at Glovers are
among the Caribbean's most richly de-
veloped. Lectures and field-trips, includ-
ing snorkeling, will familiarize partici-
pants with the mammals, invertebrates.

Coming Up...
Kenya Tour

September 11-October 1

(details to be announced)

Left: Kenya lion captured by camera lens

of Audrey Faden, Kenya tour leaderl

lecturer

fishes, sea birds, and algae of this iso-
lated, untouched coral-reef. Daily scuba
diving is available. The 50-foot motor
sloop Christmas Bird will take us to and
from the reef, where we will stay at Lom-
ont's Glovers Reef Village resort

Our stay at Glovers will be followed
by a four-day indepth exploration of the
central Belize mainland, including rain
forests, the famed Blue Hole on the
Hummingbird Highway, a stay at the
Blancanaeux Lodge atop Mountain
Pine Ridge, a visit to Rio Frio Cave
and the Thousand Foot Falls, and explo-
ration of Mayan ruins at Xunantunich.
Aiding us for the four days will be Belize
resident Dora Weyer, internationally
known naturalist and expert on bird
identification.

We will then stay five days at Roatan,
one of the Bay Islands, where steep cliffs,
rocky shores, and sandy beaches and as-
sociated wildlife provide a sharp contrast
to the Glovers atoll environment. At An-
thony's Key Resort, our Roatan home,
first class accommodations, scuba fa-
cilities, fantastic sport fishing, tennis,
etc., and superlative surroundings will
add to our enjoyment. The tour will end
with a day at San Pedro Sula, on the
mainland, with sight-seeing and shop-
ping or a tour to Mayan ruins at Copan.

Leading the tour will be Dr. Robert
Karl Johnson, curator of fishes and
chairman of Field Museum's Department
of Zoology; Dr. David W. Greenfield, re-
search associate in the Museum's Divi-
sion of Fishes and professor of biological
sciences at Northern Illinois University
(NIU), and Dr. Norman A. Engstrom, as-
sociate professor of biological sciences at
Northern Illinois University. Three
semester hours of undergraduate or
graduate credit in biological sciences are
available from NIU to tour participants.
The tour will be limited to 10 partici-
pants. The price is $2,385, from New Or-
leans (per person, double occupancy).

Belize highlands

Grand Canyon Adventure

May 21-30

Many of us have beheld the Grand Can-
yon from the rim or while flying over-
head, and some of us have hiked partway
down to the Colorado River. But there is
another Grand Canyon that relatively
few have experienced: Field Museum is
offering you the opportunity to see and
experience the canyon from the river.

The 280-mile trip will be by two
motorized rubber rafts. We'll sleep on
sandy beaches under the stars and our
meals will be excellent. Along the way,
we'll hike to places of unusual geologic
and anthropologic interest, sometimes
through the most pleasant and enchant-
ing stream beds and valleys, at times
along waterfalls. We'll see and study
more geology in this one brief period than
can be seen anywhere else in comparable

time. Dr. Bertram Woodland, curator of
petrology, will be our tour leader.

The trip will begin on Friday, May 21,
with a flight to Las Vegas, where we will
remain overnight. The evening of our ar-
rival, we'll have a briefing about the river
trip and will receive our river equipment.
Saturday morning we'll leave by deluxe
bus for Lees Ferry, where we'll board the
rafts. The trip will end 9 days later, at
Pierce Ferry, near the head of Lake Mead.
We'll return to Chicago, via Las Vegas,
Sunday, May 30.

You needn't be a "rough rider" to join
this expedition — you needn't even know
how to swim. Persons of any age can enjoy
the river with equanimity, and come out
proud and happy to have experienced this
extraordinary adventure.

The cost of $1,500 per person covers all
expenses (including air fare, boat fees,
waterproof bags for gear, sleeping bags,
etc.), and all meals. The trip is limited to
25 participants.

If you wish additional de-
tails for any tour or would
like to be placed on a special
mailing list, please call
Dorothy Roder, Tours
manager, at 322-8862, or
write Field Museum Tours,
Roosevelt Road at Lake
Shore Drive, Chicago, IL
60605.

Shooting rapids of Grand Canyon's Colorado

<* ^.i.

^^■:m.

-- V

Kwakiutl village of

Xumtaspi-Nalm'itti,

Hope Island, B.C., 1884.

77if village location —

hehceen a beach and a

thick forest — reus typical.

Signs above the doors

read: 'CHEAP. The home

of the head chief of al

tribes in this country.

White man can get

information," and

■'BOStOX.Heishcad

chief of Saiceety

[SahiHtti]. He is true and

lionest. He don t give no

trouble to no white man."

Lone U.S. (?) saitor

stands in front of center

8 structure.

~r--

.#"=

-^^Sff^*^

COURTESY THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL USTO

HOUSES

Of The Maritime Peoples
Of The Northwest Coast

by Daniel J. Joyce

Staff Member of the Maritime Peoples
of the Arctic and Northwest Coast Project

New permanent exhibit "Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast" opens to public in Hall 10 on April 24

When plans were made a few years ago for
a new permanent exhibit at Field
Museum on the Maritime Peoples of the
Arctic and Northwest Coast, it was clear that the
magnitude and comprehensiveness of the proj-
ected exhibit required the inclusion of a North-
west Coast house. (Such houses had been on view

nearly 90 years earlier at the World's Columbian
Exposition, but were now no longer available.)

Tonv Hunt, a well known Kwakiutl artist and
a resident of British Columbia, was commissioned
to build in Hall 10 the rear portions, in cutaway
fashion, of two Kwakiutl houses. They were to be
replicas of the type built by the Kwakiutls in the

Early view ofKwakiutI
house frame through
camera lens of Edward
S. Curtis. Side beams
are exceptionally large.

latter 1800s, and represent the same house as ar-
ranged during the secular and sacred seasons.
Calvin Hunt, Tony's cousin, and colleague John
Livingston, assisted Tony.

The two impressive structures (15 feet high,
22 feet wide, 11 V2 feet deep) are set against the east
wall of the hall. That on the left, representing the
interior during the secular season, is furnished
with conventional household articles of the
nineteenth-century Kwakiutl and is fronted with
glass somewhat in the fashion of a diorama. The
house to the right, designed as a walk-in exhibit,
shows an interior arranged and partially fur-
nished for ceremonial activities during the sacred
season. Here volunteers will talk with groups
about the culture of the Northwest Coast Indian.

Each house' features two house posts^ carved
with ravens, the principal crest of Tony Hunt's
family, and mythological sea grizzly bears holding
human figures. The ceremonial house has a
three-section wooden dance screen^ decorated
with a stylized sea monster and ravens.

The typical Northwest Coast dwelling, made
of cedar planks, housed a large extended family
and its possessions. In villages situated on
beaches, the houses were commonly arranged in
a single row, facing the water: canoes were

1. Cat. 264017, 264018

2. Cat. 264017A, B; 264018A, B

3. Cat. 264019A, B, C

Location of

major Northwest

Coast tribes

HAIDA

Alaska /

Niska
Gitksan
TSIMSHIAN
Coast Tsimshian
Haisia

British Columbia

BELLA COOLA /

/
/

CANADA

So Kwakiull

>COASTSALISH

chemakum

^ klatskanie-kwalhiokwa"

TILLAMOOK .. i .

/ CHINOOK U.S.A.

Washington

COURTESY THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

beached literally at the doorstep. The houses of
larger villages (populations ranged from 50 to
1,000) were often in two or three rows, the front
row for families of highest social ranking and the
back row for the lowest ranking. Sweat houses,
smoke houses, grave houses, and huts for women
during menses were also in the back row.

On the northern portion of the Northwest
Coast, houses averaged about 30 by 45 feet in
size; those further south were generally larger,
often measuring more than 60 by 90 feet.
Throughout the area, elaborately carved totem,
mortuary, and memorial poles were commonly
installed in front of the larger houses, with
carved house posts inside as well. Horizontal
beams within the house were adzed in decora-
tive linear designs.

The exterior front of the house was some-
times painted with the figure of that animal
(commonly a raven, bear, beaver, or whale) as-
sociated with its most prestigious member; in

Left and below, Northwest Coast Indian houses at 1893
exposition in Jackson Park, Chicago. Left: Dugout cedar
canoes beached on shore of what is today Jackson Park La-
goon. Below: House at left shoivs northern style ofHaida.
House at right, from village of Nahwitti, B.C., shows
Kwakiutl southern style, with both vertical and horizontal
planking. Totem pole third from left (noiv on view in Stanley
Field Hall) has opening that served as doorway when set
against house. Remaining totem poles ivill be seen in Hall 10,
opening in April.

COURTESY THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

■•^^

some cases the animal's mouth was an actual
opening that served as the house entrance. The
mouth of the lowest figure on a totem pole,
sometimes set flush to the house, was carved
through to the other side for the same purpose.
Since permanent paints were unknown to the
Indians before the arrival of the Europeans, it has
been suggested that painted house facades were
removable, and set up only for ceremonies; this
changed after more durable paints became
available.

Two basic types of house were constructed
throughout the coastal area, one type by the
TUngit, Haida, Tsimshian, and Haisla-speaking
Kwakiutl on the northern section of the coast,
and a second type in the southern portion by the
remaining Kwakiutl, Bella Coola, and Nootka.
The northern type was rectangular and gable-
roofed, with vertical planks for walls. These
northern houses often had mortised joints, form-
ing a highly stable, durable structure.

The vertical wall planks were set into slotted
horizontal planks at both the top and bottom.
The horizontal members were fastened to house
posts. A roof opening let light in and served as a
smoke hole. The floor was dug out, leaving a
wide bench to run along the inside walls. Cedar
plank rooms on top of the bench were like minia-
ture houses. The room of a less affluent family
was made of cedar bark matting on a pole frame
rather than of solid wood. The most prestigious
member's room was at the rear center of the
house, near the two house posts. Next to his, at
the rear and around the sides toward the door,
were those of members whose status was pro-
gressively lower; the quarters of slaves (captives
from other tribes) were at the front near the
entrance.

For ceremonial occasions, the interior was
greatly altered. Family partitions were taken
down, and a central hearth was made available
to all, instead of one hearth for each family. An

COURTESY THE AMERICAN MUSEUM
OF NATURAL HISTORY

Kwakiutl village on
Salmon River, B.C.,
1881. The incomplete
house second from
the left shows main
beam structure with
latticework partially
installed. Two houses
to right show both the
older horizontal and
the newer vertical
wall planking.

elaborately painted, wooden dance screen was
placed between the posts at the rear of the house.
The area behind the screen, where only the ini-
tiated could enter, was held as sacred. The danc-
ers entered and left through a round hole in the
screen. The entire setting was conducive to and
appropriate for elaborate ceremonies.

Houses on the northern and southern sec-
tions of the coast were similar to one another in
appearance, but differed in structure. In the
south, three or four heavy upright posts sup-
ported low-pitched gable roofs. Large posts
supported a heavy single or double ridgepole,
around which a latticework of smaller poles was
constructed. Wall and roof planks of cedar were
attached to these poles to form the outer sheath-
ing, but in such a manner that they could be
taken down when the time came for the family's
seasonal move.

The wall planks were lashed to upright pairs
of poles near the house corners. In the south,
northern-style vertical planking construction
eventually came to replace the horizontal style.
The vertical poles were then no longer necessary,
and often the top of the vertical planking was
nailed in place to a horizontal pole running along
the top.

With the waterways as their main avenues
of transport, many villages were located on inlets
or on rivers. Here they had protection from
ocean winds and better access to fresh water and
resources of the forest. Some coastal tribes had
summer villages on the coast and winter villages
farther up the rivers and inlets. When traveling
to exploit seasonal goods, they moved their
houses or built temporary shelters of mats.

When it was time for the seasonal move, the
house sheathing was often attached to two
canoes that were tied side by side, for transport
to the new homesite; the main post structure
remained in place to be used again in the future.

Still further south, the coastal Salish and
other groups in northwest Washington built
houses similar both in construction and appear-
ance to those of their neighbors immediately to
the north, but with a shed-style, or single-pitch,
roof. The outer sheathing was separate from the
heavy posts, and the entrance was on the long
side rather than at the narrow end of the house.
Benches were again built around the inside, but
the floor was not excavated; facades remained
unpainted. Light was admitted and smoke let
out through a hole that could be adjusted by
pushing roof boards back or forth with a pole.

Ceremonial house (cutaway) designed and built by KwakiutI
nrtisi Tony Hunt, with dance screen. Designed as a -walk-in
exhibit, the structure is nearly full-sized replica of 4-post,
vertical-planked dwelling of late 1890s. Next to it has been
built a similar cutaivay, fronted with glass, showing artifacts
of daily life.

Either end of the house could be extended by
simple, incremental additions. The remarkable
house of Chief Seattle (17867-1866), of the
Suquamish, was extended to a total length of 900
feet.

As Europeans settled on the Northwest

Coast, their influence was reflected in the style of
native houses. Windows, hinged doors, and
European-style furniture came into vogue. In
time, the traditional dwelling of the Northwest
Coast peoples gave way to the conventional
frame house of the White settler. D

i — 1

(p) (p)

A A A A

n n n n

CD} s 1

1 1

T-

South Coastal House: framework details.

Left, above: Top view of house, showing
4-post (P), main beam structure, with lat-
ticework (below) partly rendered. Left
below: Side view. Below: End view. In this
vart of the coast a latticework of small poles was
Duilt around the main beam framework to lend
added support to the walls and roof The lat-
ticework and the outer sheathinv of cedar
planks were removable. Drawings try the au-
thor.

A A

B *

1 1

' i- . 1

= III

^ill n II II II

HbII

c|rH L^^J— H : H H—

_i^ H-^

f
I

0
E E

.J i

J I

■ !^

North coastal house
frame, showing
mortiseivork. North
coastal frameioork was
more technically
advanced and detailed
than that of south
coastal tribes. Drazcing
by the author.

Alaskan

NATIVE CULTURE TOUR FOR MEMBERS

June 18 -July 2

June 18: Fly from Chicago to Anchorage,
transfer to Sheraton Anchorage Hotel.
City tour, including Fine Arts Museum,
then dinner at historic Club 25. Over-
night Sheraton Anchorage Hotel.
June 19: Flight to Kotzebue, with day
tour and overnight first class hotel.
June 20: Depart for Nome; day tour of
Nome. Depart for Anchorage; overnight
Sheraton Anchorage Hotel.
June 21: Depart early morning by motor-
coach to Denali National Park (formerly
McKinley). Afternoon and evening free
for National Park Service slide shows
and demonstrations, overnight first class
hotel in park.

June 22: Early morning wildlife tour in
park; early afternoon motorcoach to
Fairbanks. Overnight Captain Bartlett
Hotel.

June 23: Special tour and lecture for Field
Museum by University of Alaska, on
ivory and totem carving, agriculture,
permafrost construction, oil develop-
ment, economic situation, etc. Overnight
Captain Bartlett Hotel.
June 24: Fly Fairbanks to Whitehorse.
Yukon River raft trip and outdoor BBQ
dinner. Overnight at Travelodge.
June 25: Day-long trip on narrow-guage

railway to Skagway. Free time to sight-
see, then to Klondike Hotel for overnight.
June 26: 5-hour boat curise to Juneau; to
Baranof Hotel for overnight, with stop at
Mendenhall Glacier enroute. Late after-
noon walking and van tour, including
historic district, gold mine, government
buildings; outdoor salmon bake dinner.
Overnight Baranof Hotel.
June 27: Morning tour of Alaska State
Museum. Afternoon program on Alaska
Native Land Claims Settlement Act and
current native economic conditions.
Board cruise shipM.V. Statendam in late
afternoon. Meals on board begin with
dinner Cruise ship departs 11:00 p.m.
(Statendam is 25,000-ton luxury liner.)
June 28: Day of cruising on Glacier Bay;
lecture room provided to the group.
June 29: Port of call: Sitka. Special tour of
Sheldon Jackson Museum, National
Park Service exhibits, totem collection,
Russian Orthodox church, Baranof Cas-
tle site.

June 30: Cruising off British Columbia
coast.

July 1: Arrive in Vancouver by Staten-
dam in morning. Special tour of Van-
couver, highlighting Northwest Coast
Indian art; overnight Bayshore Inn.
July 2: Fly from Vancouver to Chicago.
This tour is limited to 30 persons (dou-

ble occupancy), and includes for the tour
price of $3,700 (single supplement: $400)
a lecturer and escort; all lodging, sight-
seeing, and transportation; best hotels
available in each city; class D, E, and F
outside cabins on the cruise ship; meals
in the itinerary plus all breakfasts and
all meals on the Statendam; all ground
tours and transfers in exclusive vehicles
and specially done for the Field Museum
group with 30 participants. With 15-29
participants, tours will be done exclu-
sively, but transfers may be combined
with other travelers.

Our tour leader will be Dr. Margaret
B. Blackman, associate professor of
anthropology at SUNY-College at
Brockport, New York, an authority on
native cultures of the Northwest Coast
and Alaska.

LEARNING MUSEUM CONTINUES WITH

An Alaskan Eskimo
wooden mask from
Point Clarence,
Alaska. This carving
exemplifies the free-
dom of farm that
characterizes Eskimo
art. The Alaskan Es-
kimo frequently em-
ploy masks in
dances and other
ceremonies. Regarded
as repositories of spirit
power, masks were
often destroyed after
being used. Cat. 12938.

ARTS OF Tide and Tundra

An Arctic and Northu^est Coast Perspective

By Robert Steven Grumet

Northwest Coast Specialist

and

Anthony Pfeiffer

Project Coordinator
Made possible by a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, a federal agency

The land and the people of the far northern
shores of North America have moved as
one to the beat of wind and wave for
countless generations. Long summer days, even
longer winter nights, the ebb and flow of tide and
pack ice, snow and rain, the annual migrations of
caribou, salmon, seal and whale, have all set the
tempo of Eskimo* and Northwest Coast Indian
life. The people of these regions have always

swayed in harmony with the varied rhvthms of
their lands. Nowhere is the essence of this rela-
tionship between people and their environment

* The word "Eskimo" comes from the Algonkian "eaters
of raw flesh." The Canadian Arctic people prefer to call
themselves Innuit, which means "people" in their lan-
guage. Most Alaskan Arctic people continue to call them-
selves Eskimos .

more apparent than in the artistic traditions of
the people of the Arctic and North Pacific Coast.

Wide expanses of sheet ice, open water,
and barrenlands; dark arctic nights, and the pale
luminosity of the polar sun find expression in the
free flow of light and form in Eskimo art. Brightly
colored, highly abstract, and simply drawn images
stand out starkly against solid color backgrounds.
White is a highly favored background color, rem-
iniscent of snow. Scenes of everyday life, super-
natural visions, images of animals and physical
features are drawn with a sharpness that mirrors
the Eskimo experience of their land.

While we require a plane or horizon line,
linear perspective, and a vantage point from
which to measure distance, the Eskimo view the
world as a dynamic, highly changeable place.
Bright days suddenly plunge into darkness; clear
weather transforms into blizzards in an instant.
People sleeping beside an open water bay awaken
to an ice sheet. Sometimes blinded by fog and
snow, Eskimo people use other senses to navigate.
Wind blowing from over salt water smells differ-
ent from that blowing from over fresh water. The
direction of the wind at a particular season or
under particular conditions also reveals its source.
Touches of wind and the smells of ice or land
forms are Eskimo navigational aids.

The Eskimo spend much of their time on the
heaving surfaces of pack ice and open water and,
thus, do not orient themselves upon flat, stable
surfaces. Their art mirrors this perspective. Carv-
ings, for example, are not restrained by pedestals,
and drawings do not have fixed vantage points.
The objects seem to float in space. Most Eskimo
sculpture is not free standing and falls over when
placed upon a level surface. Thus, the meaning
and the aesthetic aspects of an object are defined
by its own physical form instead of by its relation-
ship to other objects.

The lush forests, snow-capped peaks, mild
climate, and teeming rivers of the Northwest
Coast contrast sharply with the Eskimo environ-
ment. The North Pacific coast is a complex and
abundant land. Mountains and forests fill the sky;
aquatic life fills the waters; and fog, rain, and
clouds fill the air. In former days, densely popu-
lated Indian villages and camps filled the shel-
tered beaches and river banks. A world rich in
resources and people is reflected in a lavish and
active art. Decorations cover all significant ob-
jects. Blankets, harpoons, houses, hooks, bowls,
and baskets are carved, painted, or embroi-
dered all over their surfaces. All space is
formally organized.

The art is full of power and tension, reflect-
ing the enormous energy of the environment and
its people. Wide-eyed, open-mouthed, and out-
stretched figures seem poised to leap from totem

The famous "Hole in the Sky" totem pole from the Gitksan
village ofKitwankool, in British Columbia. Presently free-
standing, this totem pole once adorned the front of a large
house. Visitors entered the house by climbing a ladder up to
the hole, whieh served as the house entrance. Remote Kit-
wankool is one of the few villages where totem poles and
other aspects of traditional Northwest Coast life survive in
their original locations.

Richly carved and dec-
orated frontlets are
worn by powerfid
Northwest Coast
chiefs. This J^imshian
example collectedjrom
the Skeena River is
richly inlaid with
abalone shell, sur-
rounded by 40 rows of
ermine skins, and
adorned on the top by
sea lion whiskers and
red and bUtckfeathers.
The carving of the
beaver is identified by
the conventional buck
teeth, hand-held
sticks, and cross-
hatched tail motifs.

poles and from paintings on the front of houses.
Figures intertwine with and transform into one
another. The salmon eye, a very popular motif, is
actually a representation of a salmon head with
its own smaller eye. This motif is often inserted
into the pupil of the eye of another larger figure,
which in turn may be a component of yet another
figure. This constant transformation of figures
within figures generates a dynamic sense charac-
teristic of Northwest Coast art.

The fruits of an abundant environment sup-
port a dense population requiring complex politi-
cal and social organization. Political and social
power are reflected in the art of Northwest Coast
peoples. All life is ranked from the greatest to the
least. Every aspect of the creation is assigned its
place and knows or keeps it. Great chiefs of noble
lineages lead the people. They serve as the patrons
of an art that validates their power. Much of
Northwest Coast art illustrates the heraldic crests
of important families. Most of the masks and cos-
tumes produced by Northwest Coast artists are
made for dances and ceremonials sponsored and
owned by powerful clans and leaders.

Spiritual power also plays an important part

in Northwest Coast art. An abundant land fosters,
many mysteries. Deep shadows are everywhere —
in the depths of clear waters, in the thick forests,
in dense banks of fog and rain, between boulders
and in cliffsides, and on the towering mountain
sides. The noises made by animals, rushing water,
and the wind sometimes evoke the howls and
screams of mythological creatures such as the
hairy female cannibal tsonoqua or the wdldman
bookwus. Spirituality suffuses all asjjects of life
and land. Stone, stem, and flesh are animated by
spirit power. Rules governing the depiction of
spirit beings are strict. For example. Crooked Beak
of Heaven, an important Kwakiutl spirit being,
can be represented only by a limited number of
forms and colors organized in a specific way.

Westerners have not always regarded the
work of Eskimo and Northwest Coast artists as
art. First collected as curios by the earliest Euro-
pean visitors to their shores, the arts of the Arctic
and North Pacific Coast soon achieved the status
of ethnographic artifacts and as such were avidly
collected by museums and private collectors. The
intensity of these efforts increased during the first
half of the twentieth century. Eskimo and North-
west Coast culture was thought to be in serious
and irreversible decline. Museum expeditions
combed Eskimo and Indian villages for artifacts to
rescue from the missionaries' torch, from the rot
and decay of age and abandonment, and from
other museums. Interestingly enough, the art of
the Eskimo and Northwest Coast Indian took its
place among the world's great art traditions dur-
ing the 1940s, just at the time it was felt that the
art and culture of this region had all but died out.

Reports of the demise of Eskimo and North-
west Coast art were premature. Eskimo and In-
dian artists and ceremonialists quietly carried
on their traditions despite missionary and gov-
ernmental suppression. Suppression changed to
support following World War II as a. large and
growing market for Eskimo and Indian art sprang
into existence. New art forms appeared. Eskimo
soapstone carvings and wooden sculpture from
the Northwest Coast were widely collected. The
limited edition silkscreen prints of Indian and
Eskimo artists have been in great demand.
The Canadian Eskimo have established several
cooperatives to produce and market their art.
Today we are witnessing an unprecedented
renaissance of traditional Eskimo and North-
west Coast culture. This renaissance is more than
the mere mimicry. It is rather an encouraging
example of the dvnamism and resilience of hu-
manity, another instance of people taking from
the past to create a lifestyle at once new and
within an ancient tradition.

Arts of Tide and Tundra: An Arctic and
Northwest Coast Perspective invites vou to sur-

Blankets were an im-
portant item of
wealth. This type,
known as a Chilkat
blanket, after the
Tlingit-speaking Chil-
kat Indians, is made of
mountain goat wool
dyed black, white, yel-
low, blue, and red.
Earlier blankets were
made of tanned skins.

vey both modern and historic masterworks.
Explore the intimate relationship between art and
its environment. Learn how objects, form, design,
and style mirror the dynamic interactions of rulers
and the ruled, of hunters and the hunted, and of
the material and spiritual realms. All lectures fea-

NEH Learning Museum at Field Museum

The NEH Learning Museum program is a three-
year sequence of learning opportunities focused on
the Museum's outstanding exhibits and collections
and designed to give participants an opportunity to
explore a subject in depth. Each unit of study con-
sists of one or more special events, a lecture course,
and a seminar for advanced work. Special events
are lectures by renowned authorities or interpretive
performances and demonstrations. Course mem-
bers receive an annotated bibliography, a specially
developed guide to pertinent Museum exhibits, and
study notes for related special events. In-depth,
small group seminars allow more direct contact
with faculty and with Museum collections.

ture the art and artifacts of the Museum's new
permanent exhibition — Maritime Peoples of the
Arctic and Northwest Coast. From imposing In-
dian totem poles to delicately carved Eskimo ivory,
North America's greatest artistic heritage is
explored. The course of study begins April 13, and
details are available in the Spring, 1982, Courses
for Adults brochure.

You are also invited to attend Tales from the
Smokehouse, a related special event. Presented
by the Theatre Sans Fils (the no-strings puppet
theatre), giant puppets act out two Canadian
Indian legends. A love story and a tale of tribal
power are combined with drama and spectacular
puppetry to make Ojibwa and Tsimshian lore
come alive for non-Indian audiences. Through the
stories, you are introduced to social mores, daily
routines, and sacred rites quite unfamiliar if not
totally unknown to most people. It is a remarkable
performance interweaving traditional symbolism
and contemporary theatre. Tales From the Smoke-
house is presented on Saturday and Sunday, June
26 and 27, at 2:00 p.m. Details of the perform-
ances are featured in the June Calendar of Events,
sent to members. D

Ayer Film Lectures

March and April

James Simpson Theatre
Saturdays, 1:30 pm

The Spring Edward E. Ayer Film Lectures are offered each
Saturday in March and April. Please take special notice of the
new, earlier starting time — 1:30 pm. These 90-minute travel
films are narrated by the filmmakers themselves, and are rec-
ommended for adults. Admission is free at the Museum's
barrier-free West Entrance, located on the ground floor. Handi-

Marche

"Footloose in Newfoundland,"
bv Tom Sterling

A visit to Newfoundland brings you the
wonders of nature — the great fiords,
bird colonies of gannets and kittywakes,
whales, moose, and tundra plant life.
Sterling also introduces you to the people
of Newfoundland — their families, "out-
ports," and daily life.

March 13

"Switzerland," by Ric Dougherty
Visit Chateau- D'Oex, a tiny hamlet
of Swiss chalets, ride up Mount Rigi,
and trek to the Malterhorn. Watch the
Reynaud family making Gruyere
cheese, and stay to welcome the cele-
brants from Vivev of The Feast of the
Wine Growers, Europe's greatest folk
festival.

March 20

"In the Footsteps of Richard Hallibur-
ton," bv William Stockdale
From London to Spain, to India and
Khvber Pass, we follow in the footsteps
of adventurer Halliburton (1900-1939).
He climbed the Matterhorn, swam the
Hellespont, and sailed a junk out of
Hong Kong, never to be heard from
again. Join Stockdale as he retraces
Halliburton's travels.

March 27

"China After Mao," by Jens Bjerre
This fascinating film invites you to sail
down the beautiful Likian River, explore
giant caverns, lour Peking, and take a
train ride through China to Kwangchow
(Canton). Bjerre also explores the many
changes in China since the death of Mao
— changes which have deeply affected
each individual with new freedom.

Aprils

"The Galapagos," by John Wilson
A devoted naturalist and cinema-
tographer, Wilson explore&the
Archipelago of Columbus — better
known as the Galapagos. Because these
islands are isolated, they are home to
some of the world's most remarkably
adapted wildlife. Scenes include the
courting of the albatross, a climb to the
top of Volcan Fernandina, and a trip to
Alcedo Crater — home of the Galapagos
Tortoise.

April 10

"Paris and the Seine,"
by Kathy Dusek

The film begins in the hills of Burgundy,
then on to the medieval city of Troyes.
See Paris at sunrise, the flower market,
and the Louvre. Visit Rouen and hear
the storv ofjoan of Arc. Finally we
arrive at Normandv and Le Havre —
totallv rebuilt since World War II.

April 17

"South and East Africa,"
bv Ted Bumiller

An exciting film safari to the great con-
tinent of Africa. Game preserves abound
with v\'ildlife — elephants, leopards, and
crocodiles. Watch fishermen catch the
200-pound Nile perch; climb Kiliman-
jaro, visit Nairobi, and meet Africa's
many peoples.

April 24

"Himalayan Odyssey,"
bv Frank Klicar

The Himala\'as are the meeting place
for Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam.
Pilgriins seek spiritual enlightenment
at Bhaktipur in Nepal, Rishikesh on
the Ganges, and at the Tibetan monas-
teryof Leh. Village activities center on
grain planting and harvesting, process-
ing tea, making rugs, raising livestock,
and paper-inaking.

NIHOA ISLAND

An Archaeological Mystery
In the Hawaiian Chain

By Thomas J. Riley

PHOTOS COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR

Fluffy cirrocumulus clouds were being
herded west by gentle trade winds to be-
come part of another magnificent Hon-
olulu sunset as the 40-foDt sloop Ho 'o Holo
cleared the Alawai channel. Outside the last
channel buoy, our skipper headed her into the
wind as we set the main and genoa sails and
joined the clouds in their migration into the
reddening west. This was the first leg of a small
scientific expedition to the island of Nihoa in
the northwest part of the Hawaiian chain. If you
have never heard of Nihoa, you are not alone.
This little island and its neighbor, Necker, some
150 miles north of it, were unknown even to
Hawaiians at the time that Captain Cook landed
there in 1778. Few of the present-day inhabi-

tants of the state of Hawaii have ever seen either
of them.

Two of us aboard the Ho'o Holo were scien-
tists. Carl Christensen, a malacologist from the
Bernice P. Bishop museum in Honolulu, was
interested in collecting land snails from Nihoa,

Thomas ]. Riley is associate professor of anthropology at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He wishes "to
thank John Carroll, a man for all seasons, who made the trip
to Nihoa possible; Sheila Conant, a dedicated scientist who
welcomed a group of intruders to her research area in most
gracious fashion; Carl Christensen, malacologist; and the
crew of Ho'o Holo, Dan, Bill and John, without whom we
wouldn't have gotten there and back. A special thanks to
Barking Sands Missile Range radiomen and to the U.S.
Navy. "

In the first day's trek
we found only one ar-
tifact, a donut-shaped
ooject of pumice —
probably a net float. 21

A rectangular stone

platform in East Palm

Valley, possibly as-

soaated with the

marae (temple) just

helow it.

and I was interested in the numerous archaeo-
logical remains that had been noted there ear-
lier in the century. The expedition was purely
one of reconnaissance for me. No archaeo-
logical excavations would be undertaken in
the scant two days that we planned to spend
on the island and all the surface artifacts that I
found would have to remain in place, with only
maps to tell where they had been found. The
major goals of my visit were to describe the
condition of the archaeological sites there and to
collect some curious material known as volcanic
glass that ancient Polynesians living in the
Hawaiian Islands had used for making small
tools.

The archaeological sites in Nihoa island had
been studied once before, by Kenneth Emory of

I62«

24'

21'

the Bishop Museum, who had spent a short
time in 1924 completing a survey and excava-
tions at various sites on the island. A couple of
short visits in the 1970s, one by ethnobotanist
Douglas Yen, and another brief visit by a
National Park Service archaeologist, provide
us with the only other information that the
archaeological profession has of the sites that
are located on Nihoa. My own reconnaissance
was geared towards finding out how much de-
struction had occurred on the various sites on
the island so that the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service could use the information in preparing
nominations for the National Register of His-
toric Places.

A second reason for my visit was to collect
fragments of volcanic glass that might be on the
surface of some of the sites on the island. Vol-
canic glass is similar to obsidian in that it is pro-
duced by vulcanism, but it differs in the amount
of silicon dioxide contained. Like obsidian,
though, the flakes produced from this glass
provide sharp cutting edges and the ancient
Polynesians of Hawaii used them extensively
for fine cutting tools. Both obsidian and volcanic
glass can be dated by hydration: the depth that
water has penetrated and altered the surface
from the time that the glass was chipped as a
tool. This weathering is fairly regular and can be
measured under a microscope. It was my hope
that on Nihoa would be some remains of this
material that had either been found there or
brought from the main Hawaiian group by the
inhabitants of the island. In this way it might be

I56»

Necker

Nihoa

Oahu

MOLOKAI

Lanai 'Ci ^P^
Kahoolawe

Maui

100 miles

Hawaii

24*

21*

162*

156°

NiHOA Island

Miller's
Plateau

Tanaser Peak (8S2')

Tunnel
Cave

Pinnacle-
Peak (626')i

Dog's Head
Peak oss')

1,000 Feet

I— I t-i i-i I—

100 Feet elevation
interval

possible to date the length of time that Nihoa
was visited by Polynesians and perhaps tie this
tiny island into the chronology that archae-
ologists are now developing for the main
Hawaiian Islands.

The expedition was organized with the
help of John Carroll, then a Hawaii state senator
and member of several committees concerned
with Hawaii's fisheries and natural resources.
There were plans to open fishing areas in the
northern islands and Senator Carroll was in-
terested in discovering the potential impacts of
such a political decision.

The sloop (owned by Carroll) made its way
slowly down the south coast of Oahu and across
the treacherous Kauai channel, so rough that it
protected Kauai from conquest by the chiefs
of the other Hawaiian Islands during ancient
times. Even the great chief Kamehameha I, who
conquered all the other islands during the late
eighteenth century, was prevented from making
war on Kamualii, chief of Kauai, by the mon-
strous seas here. Our passage was calm and
peaceful, however, and we put into Nawiliwili
harbor on Kauai to pick up Senator Carroll and
our navigator.

At about midnight we departed Kauai,
skirting its eastern shore and sailing north and
west around Hanalei and Ha'ena. Sailing west,
we eventually lost site of Kauai, the last main
island of the windward group, and with a fol-
lowing wind made the tiny islet of Nihoa just
before dawn the next day.

At the best of times Nihoa presents an eerie
prospect to the visitor. It is a small craggy vol-
canic remnant of some 156 acres (equal to about
36 average city blocks) surrounded by the deep
Pacific. Its inhabitants are chiefly the many
species of seabirds that abound in the northern
Pacific. The quiet of the island, with no signs of
human life on it, is interrupted only by their
varied calls and the crashing of the waves
against its cliffs. There are no protected beaches
here and the small size of the island prevents
the development of either a calm lee side or a
fringing coral reef. The little coral that manages
to survive around the island is deep below the
surface of the water where it is safe from the
massive ocean swells.

We arrived at night, shortly before dawn,
and heard the seas breaking along Nihoa's cliffs
before we saw the island itself. The only other
sounds were the screams of shearwaters night-
fishing in Ho 'o Holo's wake and the occasional
slapping of canvas as the swell caused a slight
luff in the jib. In the dark we could make out no
geographic features and we circled the island for
the next hour until a gradual reddening in the
east silhouetted the peaks at either end of it.

The two peaks. Miller's on the west and
Tanager to the east, bracket six small valleys,
hardly more than large gullies really, that make
up the bulk of the island. Between the valleys
are short ridges of land that are covered with
low green growth of native chenopods (the
spinach and beet family) and other plants. In

The author standing by
prehistoric stone tem-
ple terrace with stand-
ing slivers of basalt.
Trees in background are
Pritchardia remota, a
species found only on
this island.

^^''^^m

two of the valleys, West Palm and East Palm, are
stands of a rare tree, Pritchardia remota. This
genus of palm is noted elsewhere in the
Hawaiian chain, but the species is endemic to
Nihoa. It is endangered and even from the sloop
we could count every individual tree of that
species in the world.

After first light we found an anchorage of
sorts on what appeared to be the lee of the is-
land between Miller's Peak and a small crag
called Dog's Head. None of us were pleased
with the direction of the swell or the possibility
that if the sloop dragged anchor she would be
pounded against the 800-foot-high cliff that lay
less than 70 yards off her stern. The day seemed
calm enough, however, and we launched our
inflatable raft, fOled it with equipment and crew
and a crate of oranges, and took it along with
the boat's dinghy around to our landing place
on Adam's Bay on the south side of the island.
The oranges were a special treat for a young
ornithologist. Sheila Conant from the Univer-
sity of Hawaii, who was taking a bird census of
the island during its major breeding season.

Sheila had been on Nihoa for a month be-
fore we arrived, and was instructed by the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service to make certain that
we abided by our research permit. The condi-
tions of the permit included several important
caveats. First, no smoking or vegetable materi-
als that could possibly grow on the island could
be landed there. To guarantee this, each crew
member had to provide new clothes and
equipment for the expedition. What if a new
plant were introduced to the island? The results
could possibly be devastating to the fragile
ecological balance that exists on this little rock.
A fire started from a careless match could be just
as disastrous, and possibly destroy the habitat
of two of the endangered species there, the
Nihoa Finch and the Millerbird, both of them
endemic to this little plot of land, and found
nowhere in the world outside the leeward
Hawaiian Islands.

Another condition of our work was that we
stay well clear of the Hawaiian monk seal if any

happened to be around. It was unlikely that this
particular endangered species would be there.
We did, however run into three of these large
animals sunning themselves on the small sand
beach just below Middle Valley. These animals,
too, are an endangered species, and exist only
in the Hawaiian Islands. Their numbers are so
few that biologists fear that they won't last out
the century.

Our plans were to spend only two days on
the island, returning to our boat each night so
that we might not interfere either with Sheila's
research or with the animal and plant popula-
tions that Nihoa rightfully belongs to.

I am an anthropologist first and an archae-
ologist second, and I thought that I had a fair
idea of what intrusion on native populations
might imply. In situations where I am dealing
with a human community that hosts my work,
I attempt to be as circumspect as possible, keep-
ing within the strictures of local custom and
mores. I try to determine which parts of the
scientific enterprise are possible within the con-
fines of the society with which I am working,
and sometimes have to abandon particular areas
of research if they conflict with local political
problems or with other exigencies of a situation.
I have always managed tolerably in human situ-
ations, but on Nihoa I felt as if I were treading
on eggshells — which in fact I was during my
short stay.

Sheila pointed out to us all that the breed-
ing season of Bulwer's petrel was well under-
way at the time of our visit. This small bird nests
in burrows or on the ground. At each step
through the low scrub we had to take care not to
crush the nests of these animals and condemn
birds to a death by suffocation or starvation.
Every now and then we would destroy one of
their burrows and would have to stop to dig the
poor bird out and restore the burrow. Several
species of shearwater are ground breeders. In
these cases, we had to be certain not to stay for
any more than a few minutes in the vicinity of
the abandoned eggs after the frightened birds
had fled our presence. Any more than a few
minutes in the sun and the eggs would have
overheated and the chicks died.

If the numbers of birds had been less on
Nihoa, the problems that they presented for
our progress across the island would have
been negligible. We were' however, faced with
the prospect of several hundred thousand of the
creatures on a small rock of less than a quarter
mile in area. However careful we were, all of us
had the feeling that we were making an impact
on the bird populations purely by our presence
there.

Staying close to the trails that Sheila used.

we set out with her assistance to explore the
archaeological sites on the east side of the is-
land. It was our intention to relocate each of the
sites that had been reported in earlier work
there and then to assess as completely as possi-
ble the conditions of the sites as compared to
the time when they were originally reported by
Emory in the 1920s. Crossing from Middle Val-
ley to East Palm Valley we noted long irregular
lines of stone walls, clearly field boundaries,
that roughly contoured the talus slopes. It was
these field boundaries that served to convince
Emory that some of the early Polynesian people
who settled Nihoa were permanently living
there rather than visiting yearly from the island
of Kauai, 150 miles to the southwest. An occa-

single file of the type used in finishing fish
hooks. This last was made of coral.

The structures in East Palm Valley included
a number that, from the presence of basalt dike
slivers that had been placed upright in them,
could only be interpreted as temples. Emory
recognized that they were quite different from
most temples on the main islands of Hawaii,
and so designated themmarae, the Tahitian
word for temple, rather than the Hawaiian
name heiau.

In addition to the standing structures in
East Palm Valley, a small cave high in the side
of the valley, fronted by a terrace, was either a
shrine or dwelling place. A standing stone still
guards the entrance to this cave and within it

^_. il^iMK* -*>.^Bf» **■',. •«•

Rockshelter with con-
structed platform and
walls, at east end of
Nihoa. Sites such as
these served as dwell-
ing places for pre-
historic Polynesians
during their settlement
of the island.

sional rectangular stone-faced terrace jutting
from the slopes marked the foundation of a
domestic structure that had been constructed
centuries ago. These foundations are all that
remain of the works of man on Nihoa at the
present time.

In East Palm Valley, however, the num-
ber and complexity of stone remains is greater
than on the high areas between valleys. Nestled
in the center of the valley are a series of high
stone-faced terrace structures, exceedingly well
built and well preserved. Some were excavated
by Emory and his colleagues in the 1920s and
yielded stone bowls, adzes of hard basalt,
needles of bone, fragments of gourds used as
containers, a decayed wooden shuttle used in
the manufacture of fish and bird nets, and a

are several grinding stones. The place remains
today just as its residents left it hundreds of
years ago.

In East valley near the coast are a series of
rockshelters with wide terraces in front of them.
Some of these shelters have well made stone
walls partitioning them. The insides of many
shelters have been disturbed, not by man, but
by the burrowing activities of some of the birds
in nesting. They appear to be favorite places for
petrels as well as the red-tailed tropic bird. The
activities of these animals have done some
damage to the integrity of the archaeological
deposits within the rockshelters, and it is possi-
ble that stratigraphy in these sites has been
upset by bird burrows.

Emory recorded 66 archaeological sites on

the island in his survey in the 1920s. These ap-
peared to him to represent the entire range of
Polynesian sites, from domestic structures to
agricultural terracing to sacred shrines, and
suggested permanent settlement. In a series of
deductions he concluded that the 12 acres of ag-
ricultural terracing on the island could have
produced 48 tons of sweet potatoes, a crop
which Emory felt would have been best suited
to the area. He suggested that the 25 to 35 foun-
dations for domestic structures and the 15 rock-
shelters on the island could have supported a
population of about 170 to 220 persons, with 5
per house and 3 in each rockshelter. However,
the agricultural yield in sweet potatoes would
have been far too little (between about 400 and
600 lbs. per person per year) to support such a
population. Even if all the house foundations
and bluff shelters were not occupied at the
same time, the yields would have been a scant
diet supplement.

A population of 50 could have had only
1,900 lbs. of sweet potatoes per person during
the year, or a little over 5 lbs. per day. While this
is an adequate dietary supplement for Polyne-
sian populations, it could hardly have been the
staple. For this, we would have to look to the
bird population, and potentially a heavy re-
liance on marine resources as well. There is no
doubt that the hundreds of thousands of birds
on Nihoa would have been one of the prime
resources of the population there, and Polyne-
sians were avid bird hunters and egg gatherers.

There is one serious problem, however, for
sustaining a permanent settlement on the is-
land. This is the fact that it has little or no fresh
water. Three seep springs were known on the
island at the time that Emory completed his
survey, and no more have been found since
then. These springs are heavily contaminated
by bird guano, and the bitter ammonia-water
that drips from them appears to be almost un-
palatable. It is possible that there are under-
water springs issuing directly into the ocean
from a submerged dikeline, but so far none have
been noted on the island. The inhabitants must
have depended on rainfall for their fresh water
needs, and prolonged drought may account for
the abandonment of the Polynisian occupation
there.

All this assumes that the settlement at
Nihoa was a permanent one. At the present
time we have little evidence that it was either
permanent or that there was only one settle-
ment of the island. Emory suggested on the
basis of adze types and what appeared to him to
be two different types of marae on Nihoa, that
the island was actually inhabited twice. The first
time by a set of people from its neighbor island.

Necker, and later by seasonal bird hunters from
the main Hawaiian group, most notably Kauai,
the nearest of the large islands of the windward
Hawaiian chain. His evidence consisted for the
most part of the adzes found at most of the
sites. Adzes are extremely diagnostic in
Polynesia. The shapes that Polynesians gave to
these woodworking tools vary considerably
from one island group to another and over time
as well. The adzes on Nihoa were almost all
similar in form to the styles of adze that de-
veloped in the Hawaiian Islands fairly late in
time. The few that were different looked very
much like the enigmatic adzes from Necker is-
land some 180 miles to the northwest of Nihoa,
and fit with Emory's idea of an early stratum of
settlement from this small, bleak rock even
further removed from the main Hawaiian chain.

The later settlement, however, from the
main Hawaiian group, was quite different in
character. The lack of water on Nihoa and the
proliferation of temple sites all suggested to him
that the people who came here stayed only dur-
ing the birding season, probably during the
summer when the petrels, shearwaters, and the
other species of bird were most numerous on
the island. At the moment, the particulars of
the history of the island's settlement are still
shrouded in mystery.

I was hoping that an intensive search of the
surface of archaeological sites on Nihoa would
yield some evidence of volcanic glass. The ex-
tensive disturbance of the sites by birds had led
me to expect that some of this material, so im-
portant in dating many archaeological sites in
the Hawaiian Islands, might be gathered from
the dirt turned up by these animals' burrowing.
If some could be retrieved, then we would have
at least the minimal kinds of materials to put
this island into the chronological framework
that archaeologists have been developing for
the main Hawaiian islands.

At the present time the initial settlement of
the main Hawaiian islands is thought to have
been from the central Pacific, specifically the
area that includes the Samoan and Marquesan
groups. Radiocarbon dates and volcanic glass
agree on a settlement in the A.D. 400 range, with
subsequent population growth occurring in
Hawaii because the early human populations
there had no competition from other predators.

The earliest dates in the main chain are
from sites surrounding a coastal swamp on the
north side of the island of Oahu and from a little
valley called Halawa on the east end of the is-
land of Molokai. There is little doubt that the
whole Hawaiian chain, however, was populated
by the ninth century A.D. and some of my own
work at Ha'ena on Kauai has shown a well de-

veloped population there by the twelfth century
A.D. If we could recover some of the volcanic
glass from the sites of Nihoa it would not only
be possible to date the settlement, but it might
also be possible to identify the source of the
volcanic glass on the island of Kauai. Unfortu-
nately, in the first day's trek, when my assistant
and myself were recording the damage to ar-
chaeological sites and carefully searching their
surfaces, we found no signs of volcanic glass,
and only one artifact.

The artifact was a single donut-shaped ob-
ject of pumice, a porous volcanic substance that
floats. It was located in the rubble from a fallen
corner of the most complete Marae of East Palm
Valley, the site that Emory had called number
50. The artifact was probably a net float.

As we made our way back to the landing
place in the late afternoon, we travelled the high
trail of the island close to the cliff edges. It was a
sheer drop of 600 to 800 feet to the sea below,
and up there the moaning sounds of the shear-
waters drowned out the sounds of the crashing
waves. Both of us were disappointed, but we
were certain that we would have better luck as
we recorded the sites on the west end of the
island the next day.

We left Sheila on the island, and I left my
equipment and rucksack as well, though I took
my hastily sketched notes and camera with me
back to Ho'o Holo. That night we shared experi-
ences, since Christensen, along with John Car-
roll, had collected terrestrial snails on the west
end of the island as my assistant and myself
trekked the east valleys. Christensen was ex-
cited to have collected several species of which
very few examples existed, and I was excited by
the fact that comparatively little disturbance had
occurred to the archaeological sites. The preser-
vation was still comparatively good. Certain
that the next day would bring better fortune in
terms of recovering datable material, we all
turned in.

The "certainty" was an illusion. During the
night we felt Ho'o Holo shift at her anchorage as
the wind veered to the southeast, and then at
about four in the morning we heard a loud
crashing sound towards the stern and the boat
shuddered from sternsheets right through to
stem. We all turned to and immediately pre-
pared to make way. A check of the bilge showed
that Ho'o Holo had not been holed, but the stif-
fening southeasterly wind and the rising swell
made it necessary to leave our anchorage and
run ofs the island. At dawn we could see the
massive breakers battering themselves to spume
on the cliffs that were the only landing place on
the island. It was obvious that our second day of
reconnaissance on the island would have to be

abandoned. After radioing Sheila, we set sail for
Kauai in what became a heavy sea and wind.
Two days later, with a heavy sea still running
and the winds still blowing out of the southeast,
we made Port Allen on the south end of Kauai.

The weather around Nihoa is traditionally
fickle, and our problem of having to abandon
our second day on the island was only repeating
what other parties had experienced before. In
the 1820s the commander of the U.S.S. Dolphin ,
Captain "Mad Jack" Percival, had landed on the
island only to be trapped there with his boat's
crew for two and a half days. His boat was
smashed by waves on the island, and finally he
was dragged from the shore by a line brought in
to him by a sailor who braved the massive seas.

The recommendations that I made to the
Fish and Wildlife Service included the fact that
preservation of archaeological sites on the is-
land was quite good. The little destruction that
had occurred since Emory's visit consisted
mostly of natural erosion and the nesting efforts
of the birds. I remain disappointed that no ma-
terial suitable for dating was recovered from
Nihoa, but any archaeological research that
takes place on this island will have to be sched-
uled during a time of the year when there will
be minimal damage to the wildlife that inhabit
the place. This would mean the winter months,
when the seas are notoriously bad. It was in
January that "Mad Jack" and his boat crew were
stranded there. The risk of landing at this time
of year and of not being able to get off the island
when the work was finished, make the archaeo-
logical endeavor here a dangerous one.

Despite our own attempts, and those of ear-
lier researchers in Pacific archaeology, Nihoa
still holds to the secrets of its past. Where did
the residents of Nihoa come from? Were they
pilgrims from Kauai who built temples during
the birding season each year? Was there an ear-
lier settlement connected with the little rock
called Necker that is even more remote in the
Hawaiian chain? How long ago did Polynesian
settlement begin and when in prehistory did it
disappear? The answers are still locked up on
the silent stone remains of Nihoa, guarded over
by myriads of Pacific seabirds, and as yet un-
solved by modern archaeology.

As a final note, we discovered that the
crash that awoke us that night at anchor was not
due to the boat striking either rock or coral.
Senator Carroll informed me that when Ho'o
Holo was brought up on the ways for cleaning in
the winter of 1981 he discovered tooth marks
from a large shark on the rudder post. This
marine predator had apparently attacked the
boat that night, inadvertently alerting us to the
changing wind and water conditions. D

For Our Volunteers: A Special Valentine

1981 was yet another year of outstanding, dedicated per-
formance by Field Museum's battalion of Volunteers — 280
strong. Collectively, they contributed 42,756 hours of self-
less commitment — in virtually every facet of Museum
activity: collection maintenance, specimen preparation,
library work, photography, typing and other clerical tasks,
phone answering, editing, even assisting in scientific re-
search and conducting educational programs; and the list
goes on. Their contributions of time, talent, energy, and
enthusiasm have become essential to the functioning of
the Museum.

To honor these volunteers a reception was held on the
evening of February 17 in Stanley Field Hall. The
Museum's president, Willard L. Boyd, offered a special
welcome and words of appreciation to the evening's guests,
and Museum Director Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. pre-
sented awards to those two Volunteers with fifteen years of
continuous service to the Museum: Dorothy Karall, who
works in Zoology, Division of Invertebrates; and Ellen
Hyndman, volunteer instructor in the Museum's Depart-
ment of Education.

Dorothy Karall was recommended to Dr. Alan Solem
in 1966 by his illustrator, the late Margaret Anne Moran
McKibben. Having been told that Dorothy was an ex-
Marine, Solem was hardly prepared to meet the diminu-
tive lady with a beguiling South Carolina accent. With her
innate sense of order and art training, Dorothy has, in the
intervening years, mounted and labelled plates and fig-
ures for more than 50 of Dr. Solem's scientific papers. Week

Special Recognition

Over 500 Hours

Lorna Gonzales (1,003 hours); Zoology, Insects Division: recorded
locality data for taxonomic and biogeographic study; checked
localities on maps; entered computer data. Education: conducted
English and Spanish programs on geology and anthropology for
school groups.

Llois Stein (875 hours); Anthropology: researched and cata-
logued Pacific and Asian collections; assisted in Pacific store-
room reorganization.

Robbie Webber (720 hours); Anthropology: bibliographic
searches and research on recent geology, geomorphology and
tectonics of Peru; catalogued Amazonian artifacts.

James Swartchild (697 hours); Anthropology: photographed
specimens.

Frank Greene, Jr. (661 hours); Geology: collected Mazon Creek
specimens, recorded field distributions; cleaned specimens.

Connie Crane (648 hours); Anthropology: did research, editing,
filing and record keeping for Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and
Northwest Coast exhibit.

David Weiss (645 hours); Anthropology: Adminstrative assistant
in the Asian Division; responsible for overseeing loans; miscel-
laneous correspondence, special projects.

Rosanne Miezio (637 hours); Zoology, Mammals Division: scien-
tific illustration; assisted with maps and graphs; aided in design
28 and implementation of public exhibit on scientific illustration.

after week she walks into the Invertebrate office with her
cup of coffee and settles down to the task of trimming and
mounting scanning electron microscope photographs or
taking highly complex anatomical drawings and putting
the explanatory lettering on them, later mounting these
for publication in technical articles. In 1977 Dorothy was
appointed associate in Invertebrates.

Ellen Hyndman also joined the Museum as a volun-
teer in 1966, welcoming this opportunity to "do something
for herself" At that time the Tibetan exhibit was in its
preparation stage and Christine Danziger, the preparator,
found Ellen's assistance invaluable. Ellen researched and
labelled, sewed and mounted specimens. After the exhibit
opened, Ellen turned her talents to the Education De-
partment, becoming one of the first volunteers to serve as
instructor for school programs. Ellen has given, and con-
tinues to give, programs on animals, prehistoric life,
American Indians, cultures of Africa, China, and ancient
Egypt. She has worked on many of the special exhibits and
currently serves as liaison between the Women's Board
and the Museum's volunteer program.

Dr. Nevling also gave special recognition to the 14
volunteers who contributed 500 hours or more in 1981 and
personally presented them with gifts in appreciation for
their commitment. Volunteer Coordinator Joyce Matus-
zewich concluded the evening's program with remarks on
the impact volunteer work has had on the Museum's re-
search, education, and exhibition programs. The remain-
ing volunteers then received their gifts.

Sol Century (593 hours); Anthropology: accessioned and cata-
logued in general projects in Asian Division.

Gary Ossewaarde (590 hours); Education: conducted, researched
Weekend Discovery tours in anthropology and geology; assisted
in special events and children's workshops.

Jim Currey (564 hours); Zoology, Mammals Division: skinned,
fleshed and prepared skeletal specimens; regasketed cases;
record keeping.

James Burd (560 hours); Anthropology: accessioned and
catalogued in general departmental projects in Asian Division.

Margaret Martling (543 hours); Botany: processed picture lists,
organized Botany library, proofread papers, record keeping.

Carol Landow (525 hours); Education: instructed school groups
and Museum visitors in Place for Wonder

Over 400 hours

William Bentley (484 hours); Anthropology: photographed ar-
tifacts in Asian collections.

Anne Leonard (455 hours); Anthropology: worked on records and
photography file for tapa collections and for Patterns of Paradise
travelling exhibit.

Carolyn Moore (441 hours); Anthropology: special projects re-
searcher in Asian Division.

Louva Calhoun (439 hours); Anthropology: catalogued Acheu-
lian artifacts from prehistoric site in Tanzania; numbered,
measured, and made drawings of the specimens.

Over 300 Hours

Peter Gayford (385 hours); Anthropology: curatorial assistant for

Egyptian tomb project; researched in preparation for cataloguing

McCormick collection.

Dorothy Oliver (361 hours); Library: indexed Museum's annual

reports; assisted with interlibrary loan requests, filed new book

cards; special projects.

Lorain Stephens (358 hours); Zoology, Birds Division: prepared a

gazeteer of bird-collecting localities in Peru; started preparation

of a gazeteer of bird-collecting localities in the Guianas.

Robert Rosberg (353 hours); Anthropology: catalogued collec-
tions; pottery restorations; special projects.

Nathalie Alberts (349 hours); Anthropology: moved artifacts
into and out of storage for Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and
Northwest Coast exhibit.

Alice Wei (325 hours); Anthropology: research in Asian collec-
tions.

Julie Braun (320 hours); Anthropology: cleaned artifacts for
Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast exhibit.

Sophie Ann Brunner (317 hours); Zoology, Reptiles Division: or-
ganized and maintained skeleton preparation program.

Louise Neuert (314 hours); Anthropology: constructed special
mannequins; cleaned and sewed textiles to mounts; dressed
mannequins for Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest
Coast exhibit.

Ernest Newton (314 hours); Anthropology: research in Chinese
coin collection.

James Skorcz (307 hours); Library; worked in Reading Room;
filled interlibrary loan requests, filed cards in card catalog, re-
trieved books for visitors; compiled statistics; special projects.

Cheryl Williams (306 hours); Geology: catalogued and reor-
ganized Quaternary collections of fossil invertebrates.
Dennis Bara (303 hours); Membership: weekend membership
representive.

Eric Frazer (303 hours); Anthropology: worked on preventive
conservation and storage of textile collections.

Halina Goldsmith (302 hours); Education: conducted programs
for school groups and visitors in Place for Wonder.

1981 VOLUNTEERS

Glenda Kowalski

Ila Nuccio

Neal Abarbanell
Nathalie Alberts
Carrie F. Anderson
Cleo M. Anderson
Dolores Arbanas
Jacqueline Arnold
Terry Asher
Beverly Baker
Gwen Barnett
Dennis M. Bara
Lucia Barba
Carol A. Basolo
Winifred Batson
John Bauer
Sanda Bauer
Dodie Baumgarten
Virginia Beatty
Marvin Benjamin
William C. Bentley
Patricia Bercher
Elaine K. Bernstein
Joan Biba
Riva Blechman
Cecilia Bodman
Sharon Boemmel
Marjorie Bohn
Sandra Boots
Idessie Bowens
Hermann Bowersox
Kristine Bradof
Steven Brady
Charles Braner
Kathryn Briggs
Carol Briscoe
Julie Braun
Karen Brock
Cassandra Brown
Louise Brown
Sophie Ann Brunner
Teddy Buddington
Mary Ann Bulanda
James E. Burd
Audrey Burns
Mary E. Burt
Joseph Cablk
Louva Calhoun

Sandra J. Cameron

Robert Cantu

Sol Century

Dan Chlipala

June Chomsky

Margaret Chung

Roger Cohn

Judith Cottle

Connie Crane

Howard L. Crystal

Jim Currey

Kathryn Daskal

Eleanor DeKoven

Jeannette DeLaney

Carol Deutsch

Steven Diamond

Marianne Diekman

Phyllis Dix

Benny Daniel Dombek April Hohol

Halina Goldsmith
Lorna Gonzales
Judy Gordon
Helen Gornstein
Evelyn (Jottlieb
Loretta Green
Frank A. Greene, Jr.
Henry Greenwald
Robert Gregor
Cecily Gregory
Ann B. Grimes
Dolores T. Gross
Karen Grupp
Sol Gurewitz*
Geraldine Guttenberg
Michael J. Hall
Shirley Hattis
Audrey Hiller
Vicki Hlavacek

Gerald Kuechner
Anita Landess
Carol Landow
Ellen Lark
Joan Lauf
Sui Min Lee
Marion Lehuta
Stephen LeMay
Anne Leonard
Virginia Leslie
Janet Leszcznski
Joseph F. Levin
Michelle Levin-Parker
Inese Liepins
Elizabeth Lizzio

Dorothy Oliver
Forman Onderdonk
Charles Oneyzia
Joan Opila
Gary M. Ossewaarde
China Oughton
Anita Padnos
Therese Palmer
Raymond Parker
Delores Patton
Frank M. Paulo
Tracy D. Pederson
Renee Peron

Jim Sipiora
James Skorcz
Beth Spencer
Irene Spensley
Steven Sroka
Charles Stanish
Eric Stein
Llois Stein
Lorain Stephens
Robyn Strauss
Deanna Stucky
Bea Swartchild
James Swartchild
Patricia Talbot

Lisa Dorn
John E. Dunn
Margaret Durbin
Stanley Dvorak
Milada Dybas
Lynn Dyer
Kathleen Early
Alice Eckley
Linda Egebrecht
Anne Ekman
Agatha Elmes
Nancy Evans
Martha Farwell
Dolores Fetes
Marie Fischl
Vaughn Fitzgerald
Gerda Frank
Patricia Franks
Eric Frazer
Arden Frederick
Martha Frey
Janine Fuerst
Peter Gayford
Helen Gayner
Donald Gemmel
Nancy Gerson

Harold L. Honor
Zelda Honor
Cathy Hosman
Scott Houtteman
Claxton Howard
Betty M. Hubbard
Nancy Hubbard
Adrienne Hurwitz
Ellen Hyndman
Darryl Isaacson
Judith M. Johnson
Karolyn Johnson
Mabel S. Johnson
Malcolm Jones
Daniel Joyce
Carol Kacin
Carole Kamber
Elizabeth Kaplan
Dorothy Karall
Dorothy Kathan
Barbara Keune
Shirley Kennedy
Joyce Kieffer
Marjorie King
Dennis Kinzig
Alida Klaud

Elizabeth Louise Girardi

Ralph Lowell
James Lowers
David Lynam
Edna MacQuilkin
Margaret Madel
Elizabeth Malott
Gabby Margo
Margaret Martling
Robert Mastey
Melba Mayo
Mark McCollam
Dorothea McGivney
Withrow Meeker
Beth Metz
Beverly Meyer
Rosanne Miezio
Alice S. Mills
Carolyn Moore
George Morse
Anne Murphy
Marlene Mussell
Charlita Nachtrab
Mary Naunton
Lee Neary
John Ben Nelson
Mary S. Nelson
Norman Nelson
Louise Neuert
Ernest Newton
Herta Newton
Doris Nitecki
Gretchen Norton

Mary Anne Peruchini Benjamin Taylor
Dorothea Phipps-Cruz Jane Thain

Steffi Postol
Elizabeth Rada
Sri Raj
Brad Randall
Lee Rapp
Ernest Reed
Sheila Reynolds
Elly Ripp
Mary Robertson
William Roder
William Rom
Barbara Roob
Robert Rosberg
Kathy Rose
Susan Rosenberg
Sarah Rosenbloom

Lorraine Thauland
Dana Treister
Mary Trybul
Rebecca Tuttle
Joan Ulrich
Karen Urnezis
Lillian Vanek
Paula-Ann Vasquez-

Wasserman
Barbara Vear
Britta Veth
Charles A. Vischulis
David Walker
Mary Ann Walkosz
Bertram C. Walton
Joyce Wash

Marie Louise Rosenthal Harold Waterman

Anne Ross
Susan Rowley
Ann Rubeck
Helen Ruch
Lenore Ruehr
Linda Sandberg
Marian Saska
Everett Schellpfeffer
Marianne Schenker
Sylvia Schueppert
Florence Seiko
Sheila Seybolt
Jessie Sherrod
Judith Sherry
Barbara Siekowski

Robbie Webber
Alice Wei
David Weiss
Penny Wheeler
Bessie Whitley
Cheryl A. Williams
Francis A. Willsey
Gerda Wohl
Reeva Wolfson
Katherine Wright
Zinette Yacker
Rashona Zimring
Theodore Zwier

'Deceased Sept. 26, 1981 29

Honor Roll of Donors for 1981

Major ConMbutore of Field Museum's Progi^ims
of Research, Education, £ind Exhibition

We wish to recognize those generous donors to sands of other donors. By way of recognition,

Field Museum who in 1981 helped to maintain a we place on the Honor Roll of Donors the follow-

balanced budget. The year ended with no debt ing who contributed $1,000 or more during the

or deficit financing, thanks to these and thou- period January 1 through December 31, 1981.

Individuals— $5,000 and over

Mr. and Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
Mr. and Mrs. Gordon Bent
Mr. and Mrs. Bowen Blair
Buchanan Family Fdn.

(Mr. and Mrs. DeWitt Buchanan, Jr.)
Mr. and Mrs. Walter L. Cherry
Mr. and N^rs. Charles S. DeLong
Mr. and Mrs. William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Mr. and Mrs. Gaylord Donnelley
Mr. and Mrs. Thomas E. Donnelley II
Mrs. Marjorie H. Elting
Mr. and Mrs. Joseph N. Field
Mr. and Mrs. William Freeman
Grainger Fdn.

(Mr. and Mrs. David W. Grainger)
Mr. Raymond H. Greer
Mrs. Corwith Hamill
Mr. Joseph B. Hawkes
Mr. and Mrs. Michael R. Hodous
Mr. Frederick K. Leisch
Leslie Fund, Inc.

(Mr. and Mrs. John H. Leslie)
The Oscar G. and Elsa S. Mayer

Charitable Trust
Mr. and Mrs. William H. Mitchell
Mr. Charles F. Murphy, Jr.
Mr. and Mrs. Mile Oliphant
Mr. and Mrs. Charles Potter
Pritzker Foundation

(Mr. and Mrs. Robert A. Pritzker)
Rice Foundation

(Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Nolan, Jr.)
Mrs. T. Clifford Rodman
Mr. and Mrs. John S. Runnells
Arthur J. Schmitt Fdn.
Mr. and Mrs. William L. Searle
John M. Simpson Fund
Mr. and Mrs. Jack C. Staehle
Mrs. Gretchen M. Stewart
Mr. and Mrs. John W. Sullivan
Ruth and Vernon Taylor Fdn.

(Mr. and Mrs. Phelps Hoyt Svk'ift)

(Mr. William T. Bartholomay)

(Mr. and Mrs. Theodore Tieken, Jr.)
Estate of Chester D. Tripp

(Mrs. Chester Dudley Tripp)
Mr. and Mrs. Louis A. Wagner
Mr. and Mrs. Blaine Yarrington

Individuals— $1,000 to $4,999

Abra Prentice Anderson Charitable Trust
Alsdorf Fdn.

(Mr. and Mrs. James W. Alsdorf)
Anonymous (2)
Laurance H. Armour and

Margot B. Armour Family Fdn.

(Mrs. Lester Armour)
Mrs. Pamela K. Armour
Mrs. Edwin N. Asmann
Estate of Abby B. Babcock
Mr. and Mrs. Gary Bahr
Mr. and Mrs. George R. Baker
Mr. and Mrs. Robert O. Bass
Mr. and Mrs. Harry O. Bercher
The Bjorkman Fdn.

(Mr. Carl G. Bjorkman)
Mr. and Mrs. Bowen Blair
Mr. William McCormick Blair
Mr. Leigh B. Block
Mr. and Mrs. Willard L. Boyd
Svend and Elizabeth Bramsen Fdn.

(Mrs. Elizabeth K. Bramsen)
Mr. and Mrs. Henry A. Brown
Mr. and Mrs. Roger O. Brown
Mr. and Mrs. A. C. Buehler, Jr.
Dr. and Mrs. Robert Wells Carton
Mr. and Mrs. Jerry G. Chambers
Mrs. Leonore C. Clow
Collier-Swartchild Fdn.

(Mr. and Mrs. James Swartchild)
Mr. and Mrs. Stanton R. Cook
Mrs. Elizabeth S. Corbett
A. G. Cox Charity Trust
Mr. and Mrs. Mark Crane
Crawford Fdn.

(Mr. and Mrs. William Crawford)
D and R Fund

(Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Rosenthal)
Mr. and Mrs. O. C. Davis
Davee Fdn.

(Mr. and Mrs. Ken Davee)
Mr. and Mrs. Robert O. Delaney
Mr. Edward J. DeWitt
Elliott and Ann Donnelley Fdn.

(Mrs. Charles Hardy)
Mr. and Mrs. George H. Dovenmuehle
Mrs. Lyman M. Drake
Ms. Katherine Dunbaugh
Mr. and Mrs. R. Winfield Ellis
Mr. and Mrs. Thomas J. Eyerman
Mr. and Mrs. Marshall Field
Forest Fund

(Mrs. Glen A. Lloyd)

Mr. Clifford C. Gregg

Mr. and Mrs. Paul W. Goodrich

Mrs. Rose P. Grosse

Mr. and Mrs. Paul W. Guenzel

Mr. and Mrs. Robert P. Gwinn

Mrs. Burton W. Hales

Mrs. Mary E. Harland

Mr. and Mrs. Allen E. Harris

Mr. and Mrs. David J. Harris

Mrs. Betty R. Hartman

Mrs. William H. Hartz

Mrs. Patricia R. Healy

Mr. and Mrs. Ben Heineman

Mr. John J. Hoellen

Dr. Helen Holt

H. Earl Hoover Fdn.

Mr. and Mrs. Reinhardt Jahn

Mr. and Mrs. Harold B. James

Dr. Margaret Katzin

Mrs. Miriam H. Keare

Mr. George P. Kendall

Mr. Oscar Kottman, Jr.

Mrs. Louis B. Kuppenheimer

Mrs. Viola Laski

Mrs. Richard W. Leach

Otto W. Lehmann Fdn.

(Mr. Robert Lehmann)
Mr. and Mrs. Albert E. M. Louer
Mr. and Mrs. Franklin J. Lunding
Mrs. Lucy S. Lyon
Mrs. Marie Mahoney
Mr. and Mrs. James G. Maynard
Foster G. McGaw Fdn.
Mrs. Mary U. Meader
Mrs. Helen Mayer Medgysey
Mr. and Mrs. John C. Meeker
Mr. and Mrs. Hugo J. Melvoin
Mr. and Mrs. Charles A. Meyer
Mr. and Mrs. H. G. Mojonnier
Molner Fdn.

(Mr. and Mrs. Morton J. Barnard and

George H. Barnard)
Mr. Richard M. Morrow
Mrs. Mary Baker Moulding
Col. John B. Naser
Mr. and Mrs. Arthur C. Nielsen
Offield Family Fdn.

(Mr. Wrigley Offield)
Peterborough Fdn.

(Mr. and Mrs. Marshall Field)
Peroke Fdn.

(Mrs. Peter B. Foreman)
Mr. James H. Ransom
Mr. and Mrs. John Shedd Reed
Mrs. Helen M. Reeder

Miss Ruth Regenstein
Dr. and Mrs. Henry Rosett
Mr. and Mrs. Henry N. Rowley
Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Rubloff
Mr. and Mrs. Bernard Sahlins
Mr. and Mrs. Arthur W. Schultz
Seabury Fdn.

(Mr. John W. Seabury)
Sedoh Fdn.

(Mr. Scott Hodes)
Arch W. Shaw Fdn.

(Mr. John I. Shaw)
Bessie Shields Fdn.

(Dr. Thomas W. Shields)
Siragusa Fdn.

(Mr. Ross D. Siragusa)
Mr. and Mrs. Thomas J. Smith
Mr. and Mrs. Irving Solomon
Mr. and Mrs. George T Spensley
Donna Wolf Steigerwaldt Fdn.
Mrs. David B. Stern, Jr.
Mr. and Mrs. Robert D. Stuart, Jr.
Bolton Sullivart Fund

(Mr. Bolton Sullivan)
Sulzer Family Fdn.

(Mr John Hoellen)
Mr. and Mrs. William G. Swartchild, Jr.
Mr. and Mrs. John W. Taylor
Mr. and Mrs. Edward R. Telling
Daniel J. Terra Fdn.
Mr. and Mrs. Bruce Thorne
Edmund B. Thornton Family Fdn.

(Mrs. George A. Thornton)
The Thorson Fdn.

(Mr. Reuben Thorson)
Mr. and Mrs. Melvin A. Traylor, Jr.
Mr. and Mrs. Howard J. Trienens
Mr. Roger Van Bolt
Mr. Glen Verber
Dr. and Mrs. Harold C. Voris
Mr. and Mrs. E. Leland Webber
Mrs. John Paul Welling
Howard J. Willett Foundation, Inc.

(Mr. Howard Willett, Jr.)
Dr. and Mrs. Philip C. Williams
Mrs. Lorraine E. White
W. R and H. E. White Fdn.
Woodruff and Edwards Fdn.

(Mr and Mrs. Robert C. Edwards)
Mrs. Claire B. Zeisler
Mr. Kenneth V. Zwiener

Corporations and Foundations
$5,000 and over

Abbott Laboratories

Allied Fdn.

Allstate Fdn.

Amoco Fdn.

Arthur Andersen & Co.

Barker Welfare Fdn.

Beatrice Foods Co.

Borg-Warner Foundation, Inc.

The Chicago Community Trust

Coleman Fdn.

Commonwealth Edison Co.

Consolidated Foods Corp.

Continental Illinois National Bank Fdn.

Dart & Kraft Inc.

DeSoto Fdn.

R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co.

Esmark, Incorporated Fdn.

FMC Fdn.

Marshall Field & Company Fdn.

Field Enterprises Charitable Corp.

First National Bank of Chicago Fdn.

Ford Motor Company Fund

General Mills Fdn.

Harris Bank Fdn.

Allen-Heath Memorial Corp.

Walter E. Heller Fdn.

Household International Corp.

IC Industries

Illinois Belt Telephone Co.

Inland Steel — Ryerson Fdn.

International Business Machines Corp.

International Minerals & Chemical Corp.

The Joyce Fdn.

John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Fdn.

Robert R. McCormick Charitable Trust

McGraw Fdn.

McMaster-Carr Supply Co.

Nalco Fdn.

Northern Illinois Gas

Northern Trust Co.

Peat, Marwick Mitchell & Co.

Peoples Energy Corp.

The Albert Pick, Jr., Fund

Frederick Henry Prince Trusts

S & C Electric Co,

Sahara Coal Co.

Santa Fe Industries

Sears, Roebuck and Co.

Dr. Scholl Fdn.

Sterling Morton Charitable Trust

John S. Swift Company, Inc.

United Airlines Fdn.

United States Gypsum Foundation, Inc.

Walgreen Benefit Fund

A. Montgomery Ward Fdn.

Western Electric Fund

Arthur Young & Co.

Corporations and Foundahons
$1,000 to $4,999

A.G. Becker — Warburg Paribas

Becker Fdn.
AT&T Long Lines
Aetna Life and Casualty Insurance

Companies
Alcoa Fdn.

American Hospital Supply Corp.
American National Bank & Trust Company

of Chicago Fdn.
Amsted Industries Fdn.
BankAmerica Fdn.
Bliss & Laughlin Industries
Brunswick Foundation Inc.
Bunker-Ramo Foundation, Inc.
Leo Burnett Company Inc.
C-E Power Systems
CR Industries
Carson Pirie Scott Fdn.
Central Telephone & Utilities Corp.
ChemicalBank — Midwestern Region
Chicago & Northwestern

Transportation Co.
Chicago Bears Football Club
Chicago Bridge & Iron Fdn.
Chicago Title & Trust Co.
Chicago Tribune Fdn.
Clark Fdn.
Crane Packing Co.
Crum & Forster Fdn.
Helene Curtis Industries Inc.

Dana Corporation Fdn.

R.R. Donnelley & Sons Co.

Ehlco Fdn. (Hines Lumber)

Ernst & Whinney

FRC Investment Corp.

GATX Corp.

General Motors Corp.

General Tire Foundation Inc.

Geraldi-Norton Memorial Corp.

Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.

Gould Fdn.

Guarantee Trust Life Insurance Co.

HBBFdn.

Hart, Schaffner & Marx Charitable Fund

Walter E. Heller & Co.

Illinois Tool Works Fdn.

Interlake Fdn.

Intermatic Inc.

The James Companies

Jewel Fdn.

Johnson & Higgins of Illinois, Inc.

Kelso-Burnett Electric Co.

Kemper Educational & Charitable Fund

Kirkland & Ellis

Bertha Le Bus Charitable Trust Fdn.

Maremont Fdn.

Masonite Corp.

Oscar Mayer Fdn.

McGraw Edison Co.

McKinsey & Co.

William M. Mercer Inc.

John Mohr & Sons

Morton Norwich Products

Motorola Fdn.

L. E. Myers Co.

National Boulevard Bank Assoc.

National Can

New York Life Fdn.

Gust K. Newberg Construction Co.

North American Car Corp.

Northwest Industries Foundation, Inc.

Ogilvy & Mather Inc.

J. C. Penney Company, Inc.

George Pick & Co.

Power Systems Inc.

Price Waterhouse & Co.

Procter & Gamble Fund

Prudential Fdn.

Quaker Oats Fdn.

Reliable Electric Co.

Rockwell International

Rollins Burdick Hunter Co.

Sargent & Lundy

Schwarten Corp.

Scott, Foresman & Co.

Security Pacific Charitable Fdn.

Shell Companies Fdn.

Signode Fdn.

Sunbeam Corp.

Szabo Food Service

Talman Home Federal Savings &

Loan Assoc.
Texaco Inc.

Oakleigh L. Thome Fdn.
Touche Ross & Co.
UOP Fdn.

Union Oil Company of California
United Conveyor Fdn.
United States Steel Foundation Inc.
Urban Investment & Development Co.
Montgomery Ward Fdn.
Wheelabrator-Frye Incorporated Fdn.
E. W. Zimmerman, Inc. S"!

OUR ENVIRONMENT

Rare Black-Footed Ferret
Found in Wyoming

A rare black-footed ferret, the only posi-
tively known living member of its species,
was captured aUve in Wyoming last fall
and outfitted with a tiny radio transmitter
so that federal wildlife biologists can learn
more about the habits of these secretive,
nocturnal animals.

The ferret, captured October 29 by
wildlife biologists of the Interior Depart-
ment's U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, is
the first live black-footed ferret to be taken
in the wild since 1973, in spite of extensive
searches by federal and state biologists in a
number of western states.

"We are quite excited about finding
this extremely rare, endangered mammal
and having the opportunity to monitor its
movements," said Eugene Hester, deputy
director of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice. "By studying this animal, we hope to
obtain information that will help wildlife
biologists bring this species back to
healthy numbers."

The ferret, a male judged to be no
more than two years old and weighing
about two and one-quarter pounds, was
spotted in a prairie dog colony by wildlife
biologists who were looking for ferrets.
They followed it to a hole where they suc-
ceeded in capturing it in a live-trap when
it emerged several hours later. The
biologists attached a small radio-
transmitter to a collar placed around the
ferret's neck, observed the animal over-
night, and released it unharmed in the
morning. The transmitter is expected to
operate for four to six months, enabling
biologists to gather information about
such factors as the ferret's daily and sea-
sonal activity patterns, the amount of time
it spends in burrows, its feeding activity,
and whether it is nomadic. It is also hoped
that the radio-tagged ferret may lead the
biologists to other ferrets.

The exact location of the ferret's cap-
ture is being withheld to avoid distur-
bance to the landowners and to the scien-
tific work. All of the work involving the
ferret is being conducted under a federal
permit, which is required because the fer-
ret is protected under the Endangered
Species Act.

Considered by many wildlife
biologists to be the most severely en-
dangered mammal in the United States,
the black-footed ferret is a weasel-like
animal about 24 inches long with a black
mask over its eyes, black feet, and a black-
tipped tail.

In an attempt to increase the ferret's
32 numbers, several ferrets were taken out of

the wild between 1971 and 1973 for breed-
ing in captivity at the service's Patuxent
Wildlife Research Center in Laurel, Mary-
land. Although young ferrets were bom,
none survived, and the adults were found
to have serious disease problems such as
cancerous tumors and diabetes. The last
captive ferret died in 1978.

In the meantime, efforts by federal
and state wildlife biologists using scent-
trained dogs and other methods had failed
to positively locate any additional live
black- footed ferrets in the wUd. The first
real break in the ferret search came Sep-
tember 25, when a dead black-footed fer-
ret was discovered in Wyoming.

Whooping Crane Update

Four whooping crane chicks were raised
in wild and captive flocks in 1981, a year
which may have suffered a slight popula-
tion decline despite intensive research to
propagate the endangered species.

The highlight of 1981 research was a
first-time effort by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service and the Canadian
Wildlife Service to radio track the main
flock on their 2,600-mile fall migration
from Canada's Wood Buffalo National
Park to the Texas Gulf Coast. On October
12, trackers reported one of the chicks hit a
power line in northern Saskatchewan and
died several days later of apparent spinal
injuries.

While researchers expressed regret
over the loss of the young crane, they
emphasized that had the flock not been
tracked, the fate of the bird would proba-
bly have remained a mystery. Service sci-
entists stress that the more they learn
about mortalities, the better prepared

they are to prevent them. Previous colli-
sions with power lines have been
documented in the Grays Lake National
Wildlife Refuge flock. Power companies in
problem areas have cooperated with re-
searchers to solve the problem, sometimes
by attaching brightly colored markers to
the lines.

The Wood Buffalo flock produced
three chicks in 1981 during an exception-
ally dry nesting season that saw increased
egg losses to predatory animals. In
August, brush fires swept through the
forests and marshes, eventually destroy-
ing some 70 percent of the cranes' nesting
habitat. However, the chicks escaped the
ravaged area with their parents and the
rest of the flock.

All three chicks in the Wood Buffalo
flock were captured and fitted with radio
transmitters by U.S. -Canadian research-
ers several weeks before fire ignited the
habitat. Trackers followed the first two
chicks to leave Wood Buffalo; the first was
being tracked by a team of U.S. and Cana-
dian government biologists in a Canadian
airplane when it hit the px)wer line. In
southern Saskatchewan an American
plane carrying a Canadian biologist — the
only tracker to follow the entire route —
was standing by to pick up the trail, with a
ground research team also following the
flock. The same tracking procedures now
are being used to track the second chick,
last reported to be near Texas. Earlier,
trackers found that the tagged chick had
covered 470 miles in one day at altitudes of
up to 9,000 feet, leaving Montana, overfly-
ing North and South Dakota, and landing
in Nebraska.

As the international team began
monitoring the main flock, other re-
searchers recaptured a captive-reared
female whooper set free last spring at
Grays Lake National Wildlife Refuge in
Idaho. The female had been transported
to Idaho from the Patuxent Wildlife Re-
search Center near Washington, D.C., asa
possible mate for a lone male raised by
sandhill crane surrogate parents. How-
ever, scientists felt the two whoopers did
not establish a strong enough bond to
guarantee that the male would lead the
female on the 870-mile migration route to
Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Ref-
uge in New Mexico.

The Grays Lake foster flock was
started in 1975 to establish a second wild
flock of whooping cranes, to build the
birds' population, and to eventually en-
sure separate migratory flocks. This
would diminish the chance of a natural
disaster eradicating the sf>ecies in the
wild. The sandhill cranes in Idaho hatch

"spare" eggs taken from nests at Wood
Buffalo and from a captive breeding flock
at Patuxent. A recent shortage of suitable
female whoopers prompted scientists to
introduce the female raised at Patuxent
into the foster flock. Since the recaptured
Patuxent female made a good adjustment
to the wild, researchers will repeat the
experiment next year.

Despite the two surviving chicks
raised at Wood Buffalo Park and one
raised in captivity at Patuxent, scientists
say the whooping crane pwpulation has
not increased, as several mortalities are
known. But the bird that has become a
symbol of all endangered species has ac-
tually been making a gradual comeback:
In 1980, whoopers numbered nearly 100
in the wild and 24 in captivity, in contrast
to a dismal low of 15 in 1941, when many
considered the cranes' extinction to be
inevitable.

Tecopa Pupfish Declared Extinct
— Off Endangered List

The Tecopa pupfish has become the first
species to be removed from the en-
dangered list because it is extinct. The
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service made the
announcement after no Tecopa pupfish
were found in spite of extensive searches
by federal, state and university biologists
in more than 40 localities near Tecopa,
California, where the fish could possibly
have existed.

The unique desert fish, native to
California's Death Valley system, was
known to have lived in only two outflow
springs of the Amaragosa River system. It
is thought to have disappeared because of
alteration of its habitat and possibly also as
a result of the introduction of competing,
non-native fish. One of 12 kinds of pup-
fishes in the U.S., the iVz-inch Tecopa
could tolerate highly saline waters and
temperatures up to 110°. In 1965, the two
hot spring outflows were rechanneled and
combined during construction of bath-
houses, resulting in a swifter channel
which carried even hotter water farther
downstream, a situation for which the
pupfish was not adapted.

Virtually eliminated by 1969, the
Tecopa pupfish was added to the en-
dangered species list in 1970. By 1972, it
was known to be gone from this local-
ity, although survival of the related
Amaragosa River pupfish in nearby pools
and springs indicated that the Tecopa
might continue to exist elsewhere in the
river system.

In 1978, the Fish and Wildlife Service
proposed the Tecopa pupfish for removal
from the list because it was believed to be
extinct; removal has been delayed until
additional surveys could be completed.

"It is always sad when a species be-
comes extinct because of human activi-
ties," noted Robert A. Jantzen, director of

the Fish and Wildlife Service. "But the
Tecopa pupfish was pxjssibly already ex-
tinct when the first recovery efforts were
made under the endangered species
laws. In this instance, the fact that this fish
has become extinct should not be taken
to mean that endangered species conser-
vation measures have failed. On the
contrary, recovery actions have bene-
fited a great number of endangered spe-
cies, such as the American alligator,
peregrine falcon, whooping crane, and
brown pelican."

Hazardous Waste Disposal
and the "Small" Producers

In its 1980 Resource Conservation and Re-
covery Act regulations, the Environmen-
tal Protection Agency announced that
generators of less than 1,000 kilograms
(kg) a month of hazardous wastes, includ-
ing certain discarded commercial chemical
products, who do not accumulate more
than 1,000 kg on site at one time, could be
excluded from rules that apply to larger
generators of these wastes. Among the
discarded chemical products listed are
formaldehyde, wood alcohol, benzene,
and several other components of plastics.

The exclusion of these smaller
generators created controversy. At issue
are wastes considered hazardous,
excluded from rules that strictly regulate
generation, transport, storage, and dispo-
sal of such materials. Critics have pointed
out that hazardous wastes are no less
hazardous because they exist in smaller
quantities.

EPA's decision to exclude small man-
ufacturers or processors from initial regu-
latory framework was based on its belief
that the overall level of environmental
protection would be greater if it concen-
trated its resources on larger generators.
The agency also considered resources of
the states, which are to play an increasing
role in implementing RCRA.

To regulate all generators of hazard-
ous waste would bring 760,000 people into
the regulatory system. By setting the ex-
clusion limit for most hazardous wastes at
1,000 kg a month, 99 percent of the total
wastes would still be covered — and
695,000 people could be kept out of the
system.

Generators of even small amounts of
hazardous waste still must ensure that
their wastes go to state-approved facilities
and that wastes be disposed of properly.

In addition, RCRA provides that cer-
tain commercial chemicals, considered to
be acutely hazardous, are subject to much
lower exclusion limits if they are to be dis-
carded. That is, certain substances includ-
ing a large number of pesticides, must be
fully regulated if a generator produces and
processes as little as 1 kilogram a month of
the waste.

Fiberglass Carapace for Mud Turtle

A 13-inch-long mud turtle, its shell col-
lapsed in eight pieces after being hit twice
by cars, was rushed to a Florida animal
hospital to be put out of its misery.

Instead, the veterinarian built a new
shell with the help of an auto body shop,
and the turtle recovered.

"There was so much damage I didn't
know if we could fix it. But I figured we'd
try," veterinarian Mary Leisnersaid. "Bas-
ically, he was a very healthy turtle. What
looked bad was the shell. The whole top
was caved in like a crater. But the body
wasn't damaged.

"The turtle was good through all of
this," she said. "We stabilized him and
medically treated him, and he didn't seem
to mind. The only thing he didn't like was
when we vacuumed him to get the slivers
and chips out. He put his feet out and tried
to run away."

The unorthodox treatment was at-
tempted after Jean Nygren, a director of
Tampa's Animal Protection League, ar-
rived at the Lutz Animal Hospital with the
turtle. She had seen another car hit it, and
then struck it with her own car.

'It was bleeding so badly and the
shell was a mess. I thought it didn't have a
chance and wanted to see it put to sleep
humanely," she recalled.

Leisner examined the turtle with a
household drill and delicate bone instru-
ments, lifting depressed pieces of the
rock-hard shell. She found nearly half of it
had been destroyed.

The veterinarian filed and fit the
edges and, with some fiberglass and direc-
tions from an auto body shop operator
whose wife works at the animal clinic,
built a new shell. A dangling three-inch
tail section was reattached with super-
strength glue.

After a trip to the body shop, where
the rough fiberglass was sanded smooth,
the reptile, estimated to be about 12 years
old, was cared for at the animal hospital
for five days. It was then given a clean bill
of health and released into a swampy
preserve. ^»-

i fl

OUR ENVIRONMENT

Homes Needed for Excess
Wild Horses and Burros

The Bureau of Land Management (blm),
an agency of the U.S. Department of the
Interior, is looking for people who would
like to give a wild horse or burro a good
home. Qualified applicants can adopt a
wild horse or burro for less than it costs to
buy one commercially. The horses can be
trained to work, ride or to be pets.

These are no ordinary horses and
burros. These are living symbols of the
history and the pioneer spirit of Ameri-
ca's West. Some are descendants of ani-
mals that escaped Indian attacks on
wagon trains, cavalry attacks on Indians,
or Indian-cavalry battles. Others are de-
scendants of stock released by the cavalry
when U.S. Army outposts were closed, of
animals abandoned or lost by early pros-
pectors, and of horses and burros turned
loose by farmers during the Dust Bowl
conditions of the 1930s. Some are possibly
descended from mustangs introduced by
Spanish conquistadors in the 16th cen-
tury.

"The wild horse and burro adoption
program," says blm Director Robert L.
Burford, "is a partial solution to the prob-
lem of overpopulation among wild horse
and burro herds on western public range-
lands. These herds have expanded in
most areas since approval of the Wild
Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act in
1971. They compete for very limited for-
age and water with both native wildlife
and domestic livestock that graze the
public rangelands. In order to maintain a
proper ecological balance BLM rounds up
excess wild horses and burros and makes
them available for adoption."

Burford adds that approximately

32,000 wild horses and burros have been

34 adopted since the national Adopt-A-

TfymWr f W

— I

i
E
3

Horse Program began in 1976. Adopted
horses and burros are now found in every
state except Hawaii and Delaware.

What sort of people adopt wild
horses and burros? Just about anyone
with an interest and affection for the ani-
mals, Burford says. "Most of our adop-
ters want to see wild horses and burros
protected, not just as a reminder of our
nation's western heritage, but as animals
worth owning and enjoying."

BLM screens potential adopters for
proper facilities and experience to care for
the animals, which are unbroken when
adopters pick them up. For the first 12
months following adoption, wild horses
and burros remain the property of the
U.S. government. Adopters may apply
for title after providing proper care and
treatment for that period.

Since 1979, blm has operated a wild
horse and burro distribution center in
Cross Plains, Tennessee — about 30 miles
north of Nashville. "The Tennessee cen-
ter has been a huge success," Burford
says, "primarily by making it easier than
ever before for people in the states east of
the Mississippi River to pick up adopted
animals."

"Based on that success — nearly 3,000
adoptions in two years — BLM opened a
midwestem distribution center last sum-
mer near Omaha, Nebraska, and plans to
open another eastern distribution center
next April. We've chosen the Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania, area for the next center
primarily for its proximity to so many po-
tential adopters in the Northeast and its
accessibility via the interstate highway
system."

Members of the public who would
like more information about the adoption
program should write to Adopt- A-Horse,
Dept. 618-K, Consumer Information Cen-
ter, Pueblo, Colorado 81009. Along with a
brochure on the adoption program, the
writer receives an application form to be
completed and returned to the Bureau of
Land Management. The applicant is

**-■

asked to specify on the form the age and
sex of the horse or burro desired, and to
describe the kind of facilities available for
the animal's care. An individual can
apply for up to four animals a year.

Once BLM approves an application,
the name of the potential adopter is
placed on a register. As horses and burros
become available, the approved applicant
is notified where and when to select and
pick up the animal. How long an appli-
cant has to wait for an animal after appli-
cation has been accepted depends upon
the number of animals available and the
number of prior applicants who want
the same sex, color, or age animal. The
most requested animals are three-to-
five-year-old mares and jennies (female
burros).

Currently, there is no charge for
these wild horses and burros. An adopter
pays only a veterinarian's fee, the cost of
transporting the animal from the state in
which it was captured to the distribution
pickup point, and a portion of the adop-
tion center's handling charge. Since
January 2, 1982, there is a fee of $200 per
horse and $75 per burro, plus transporta-
tion costs. The veterinary cost is included
in the adoption fee.

Burford explained that the adoption
fee is necessary to help partially reim-
burse the U.S. Government for what it
spends to remove the animals from the
rangelands, process adoption applica-
tions, provide medical examinations and
vaccinations, and feed and handle the
wild horses and burros during the adop-
tion process. Adopters are advised of the
exact costs when animals become avail-
able.

BLM estimates there are currently
over 70,000 wild horses and burros on
public rangelands in 10 western states,
with more than half concentrated in
Nevada and Wyoming. According to BLM
range specialists, the optimum number
the ranges will support for good man-
agement is approximately 25,000.

Wildlife Successes in 1981

A happy ending for a "widowed" bald
eagle, a promising beginning for young
sea turtles, and a successful journey for
some endangered geese are just a few of
the "good news" stories that happened to
fish and wildlife in 1981, according to the
Interior Deparment's U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service.

A rare black-footed ferret, the na-
tion's most endangered mammal, was
discovered in Wyoming, and service re-
searchers studying it have since observed
two more ferrets in the same vicinity. The
ferrets are the first to be positively located
in the wild since the early 1970s. (Seep. 32.)

A female bald eagle in New York
whose mate was shot la^t year got a new
family, with some help from wildlife
biologists. First she found a new mate — a
male eagle that had been transplanted
from Minnesota and released at Mon-
tezuma National Wildlife Refuge in 1977.
Then, because the female was too con-
taminated with pesticide residues to pro-
duce her own young, wildlife biologists
put two eagle chicks into the new pair's
nest. The chicks were reared successfully
and will help to increase bald eagle num-
bers in New York State.

For the first time ever, two injured
manatees were successfully released to
the wild in Florida after being rehabili-
tated in captivity. One of the large, docile
"sea cows" was injured when she became
entangled in a crab trap line, which
wrapped tightly around her flippers. She
was treated at Sea World and released
with her calf, which was uninjured but
had remained with its mother throughout
the ordeal. Another female manatee that
apparently had been struck by a boat was
rehabilitated by two other private groups,
Marineland and Homosassa Springs. The
oceanaria and park groups rescue injured
manatees, an endangered species, under

an arrangement with the Fish and Wildlife
Service.

On the Hawaiian island of Kauai, a
wildlife biologist turned air traffic control-
ler in a research experiment to prevent
young night-flying seabirds from crashing
into brightly lighted areas. By putting
shields on outdoor lights that were con-
fusing the birds — a threatened species
called the Newell's Manx shearwater — he
succeeded in reducing the number of
crashes by 28 percent. And at aid stations
established to collect downed birds,
members of the public turned in hundreds
of the shearwaters, most of which were
saved and released to fly another day.

About 2,000 endangered Kemp's Rid-
ley sea turtle eggs were moved by the Fish
and Wildlife Service and the Mexican
Fisheries Department from a Mexican
nesting beach to Padre Island National
Seashore, where biologists are trying to
establish a second, protected nesting
beach. So that the little turtles would be-
come "imprinted" on Padre Island, they
were allowed to hatch and make their way
to the ocean before they were captured
again and transported to a National
Marine Fisheries Service facility in Galves-
ton, Texas. They will be raised in captivity
until they are about one year old, when
they will be large enough to have a good
chance of surviving in the wild. The sea
turtles will then be released in Gulf wa-
ters, and it is hoped they will return even-
tually to Padre Island to nest.

Scores of endangered Aleutian
Canada geese that were raised in captivity
in the lower 48 states were transplanted to
Alaska's Aleutian Islands and are now mi-
grating successfully with wild birds to
wintering grounds in California. In all,
more than 2,600 Aleutian Canada geese
have been counted on their wintering
grounds, up from a low of 800 in 1975.

A record 530 Atlantic salmon re-
turned to the Connecticut River to spawn.

The young from the 1.2 million eggs pro-
duced by these highly prized game fish
will be reared at state and federal fish
hatcheries and released into the river to
help rebuild the fishery. Salmon disap-
peared from the Connecticut 100 years ago
after dams blocked the migration of adult
salmon to their spawning areas. The effort
to restore the salmon in the North-
eastern United States began in 1967 and
involves the Fish and Wildlife Service, the
states of Connecticut, Massachusetts,
New Hampshire, and Vermont, the
Commerce Department's National Marine
Fisheries Service, and two private power
companies.

As a result of recovery efforts for the
severely endangered Puerto Rican parrot,
a record number of nine parrot chicks
were produced and survived in the wild
this year. Two more chicks were produced
in captivity, one of which was placed in a
nest and survived to join the wild flock.
This brings the total number of Puerto
Rican parrots to 29 in the wild and 15 in
captivity.

Service research biologists reported
that eggshell thickness and reproduction
are improving in eagles, osprey, and
brown pelicans, and that the numbers of
sharp-shinned hawks and Cooper's
hawks are increasing dramatically. Re-
searchers now agree that DDE, a persistent
breakdown product of DDT, was responsi-
ble for eggshell thinning, reproductive
failure, and population declines in the
bird populations.

American shad spawned naturally in
the Susquehanna River for the first time in
150 years. The spawning followed the re-
lease of 1,165 adult shad in the river in May
1981 by the Pennsylvania Fish Commis-
sion and the Fish and Wildlife Service.
The two agencies are collaborating with
other state and federal agencies and five
power companies to restore the Sus-
quehanna's historic shad fishery.

March & April at Field Museum

March 16 through April 15

New Exhibits

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast." Open-
ing April 24. Members' Preview 1 to 9 p.m., April 22 and 23. This
sf)ectacular exhibit compares and contrasts the life and culture
of the Northwest Coast Indians and the Eskimos. The five gal-
leries of the exhibit deal with environment and history, hunting
and collecting, the village and society, the spiritual world, and
art. Within each of these galleries are dioramas, colorful artifact
displays, study areas, and video presentations. Hall 10.

Continuing Exhibits

Hall of African Mammals. Discover the surprising variety of
African mammals, from the huge bongo or forest hog to the
dainty klipspringer, in preparation for the lecture, "Predators

and Their Prey: The Serengeti." Two of Field Museum's best
known dioramas are here: the Man-Eating Lions of Tsavo and
the African Waterhole. The African Waterhole, the Museum's
largest habitat group, includes the giraffe, gazelle, zebra, and
rhinoceros.

Hall of Ancient Egyptl^ns. Field Museum's Egyptian exhibit,
one of the country's best, has been improved by the addition of a
new exhibit area, "In the Shadow of the Pyramid." You may now
enter tomb chapel rooms built over 4,000 years ago and a replica
of the chapel of Nakht, on loan from the Metropolitan Museum
of Art. Other exhibits detail life in prehistoric and early historic
eras of Egypt. Photomurals explain how the tomb chapels came
to Field Museum. Among the most compelling objects in the
older area are the human and animal mummies. Hall J. 35

Continued on back cover

EDITH FLEMING

916 PLEASANT

OAK PARK ILL 60302

March & April at Field Museum

March 16 through April 15
Continued from inside back cover

New Programs

Ray a. Kroc Environmental Lecture. "Predators and Their
Prey: The Serengeti." Sunday, March 28, 2 p.m. Award-winning
photographer and author Baron Hugo van Lawick describes the
incredible variety of animal life which includes more than 100
species of mammals and 500 of birds, inhabiting Serengeti Na-
tional Park, in Tanzania, Africa. As a Serengeti area resident
for 14 years, he has been able to capture the circle of life and
death among the animals with vivid language and beautiful
photographs. Members: $3. Nonmembers: $5.

Edward E. Ayer Film Lecture Series. The Spring 1982 series of
these popular adult-oriented travel films is beginning at a new
time — 1:30 p.m. Admission is free through the West Entrance.
Doors open at 12:45 p.m.
March 20: "In the Footsteps of Richard Halliburton," wath

William Stockdale
March 27: "China After Mao," with Jens Bjerre
April 3: "The Galapagos," with John Wilson
April 10: "Paris and the Seine," with Kathy Dusek

Weekend Discovery Programs. Tours, craft projects, slide pre-
sentations, and films which use Field Museum exhibits as a
springboard for new insights into natural history projects are
featured on Saturdays and Sundays. March's "Film Feature"
subject is mammals from around the world.
March 20 1:30 p.m. Saga of the Sea Otter, a "Film Feature."
March 21 1:30 p.m. "Egypt's Middle Kingdom: Tombs, Art,

and Literature," slide lecture.
March 27 1:30 p.m. Baobab: Portrait of a Tree,

"Film Feature."
March 28 1:30 p.m. "Ibtankhamun: Discovery and Treasures

of the Tomb," slide lecture.
April 3 12:30 p.m. "Public and Private Life in 18th Dynasty

Egypt." slide program.

2 p.m. "American Indian Dress," tour.
April 10 "Ancient Egypt," tour.

Spring Journey "A Touch of Field Museum." This self-guid-
ing tour covers such touchable exhibits as bones, meteorites,
and polar bears. Tree Journey pamphlets available at Museum
entrances.

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Nortiiwest Coast"

Special Programs

Northwest Coast Lecture Series. "A Culture Develops." The
concluding two lectures in this series are designed to enhance
the visitor's appreciation of Field Museum's newest permanent
exhibit, "Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast,"
which opens April 24. Each lecture is individually complete
and given by a leading authority on native cultures of the
Northwest. Entrance for these 8 p.m. lectures is through the
West door. Members: $3. Nonmembers: $4.
March 19 "Adaptations: Cultural Variations," by Wavne Sut-

tles, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon.
March 26 "Cosmology, Role of the Shaman," by George Mac-
Donald, University of British Columbia, Museum of
Anthropology, Vancouver, British Columbia.

Learning Museum Course. "Arts of Tide and Tbndra: An Arctic
and Northwest Coast Perspective." Dr. Robert Grumet, visiting
lecturer and anthropologist, compares and contrasts the tra-
ditional art forms of the Northwest Coast Indians with those
of the Eskimos through striking slide presentations, the use of
authentic artifacts and traditional music. The course meets for
six consecutive Thesday evenings at 7 p.m. beginning April 13.
Advance registration now being accepted. For more informa-
tion, call 322-8854. Members: $40. Nonmembers: $45.

Contemporary Arts Symposium. "Echoes of the Past, Tides of
Change." Five noted Northwest Coast Indian and Eskimo ar-
tists discuss modern trends influencing their art. Together the
artists speak authoritatively about the state of North America's
richest and most famous artistic heritage. A related Learning
Museum event. Sunday, April 18, 1:30 to 3:30 p.m. Members:
$6. Nonmembers: $8.

Continuing Programs

March and April Hours. The Museum is open every day, 9 a.m.
to 5 p.m. except Fridays. On Fridays the Museum is op)en 9
a.m. to 9 p.m. throughout the year.

The Museum Library is open weekdays 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. It is
closed March 15 and Good Friday, April 9. Obtain a pass at the
reception desk, main floor.

Museum Telephone: (312) 922-9410

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN

Ai)iil i;)H2

'^^

-d^k

<!s$>-

S^, ^'

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor/ Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Kathryn Laughlin
Calendar: Mary Cassai
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

Board of Trustees

James]. O'Connor

cliairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gorden Bent
Bowen Blair
Willard L, Boyd
Mrs. Robert Wells Carton
Stanton R. Cook
O.C. Davis

William R, Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Marshall Field
Richard M. Jones
Hugo J. Meivoin
Charles F. Murphy, Jr.
Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
William L. Searle
Edward Byron Smith
Robert H. Strotz
John W. Sullivan
William G. Swartchild, Jr.
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leiand Webber
Julian B. Wilkins
Blaine J. Yarrington

Life Trustees

Harry O. Bercher
William McCormick Blair
Joseph N. Field
Paul W. Goodrich
Clifford C. Gregg
Samuel InsuU, Jr.
William V. Kahler
WUliam H. Mitchell
John M. Simpson
J. Howard Wood

CONTENTS

April 1982

Volume 53, Number 4

The Northwest Coast Collections: Legacry of
a Living Culture

by Peter L. Macnair

Diagram of Hall 10

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and

Northwest Coast" 13-16

Alaskan Native Culture Jburfor Members 19

Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast

by Carolyn Blackmon, chairman of the Department of

Education, and Ronald L. Weber, visiting assistant

curator of anthropology 20

April and May at Field Museum

Calendar of Coming Events

COVER

Northwest Coast masks on view in Gallery FV, "Spiritual
World," in the exhibit "Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and
Northwest Coast," opening April 24 in Hall 10. (Members'
preview April 22, 23.) Exhibit case shown on front cover
contains Kwakiutl masks; that on the back cover contains
masks of the Tlingit, Haida, and T^imshian. Photo by Ron
Tksta.

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) U publistied monthly, except combined
July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at L^ke Shore Drive,
Chicago, n. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3,00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
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phone: (312) 922-9410. Postmaster: Please send from 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History,
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THE NORTHWEST COAST COLLECTIONS

LEGACY OF A LIVING CULTURE

by Peter L. Macnair

Increasingly, museums are being scrutinized for
the way in which they present and interpret ethno-
graphic material, and rightly so, for the attitudes
of the past often reflect a cultural imperialism that
is generally not acceptable today. Examination of
the records of anv museum established in the

Peter L. Macnair is curator of ethnology at the British
Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria, B.C. At the open-
ing of Field Museum's new exhibit, "Maritime Peoples of
the Arctic and Northwest Coast," Mr Macnair will serve
as the official representative of the Province of British
Columbia. He will lecture on "Kwakiutl Winter Cere-
monies" on Friday, Ma}' 14, at eight o'clock.

nineteent h century demonstrates clearly an attempt
to amass a large, comprehensiye collection of a way
of life that was rapidly passing. Where collecting
had a scientific basis and was guided by qualified
personnel, the results were gratifvang and provide
helpful information for toda/s student of material
culture. Regrettably, other institutions sought to
impress by sheer numbers alone and such collec-
tions and the display of them remain little more
than cabinets of curiosities.

The discipline of anthropology' was still very
much in its infancy at the end of the nineteenth
century, but pioneers like Franz Boas were leading
the study into a respectable social science. Material

Early photo of
diorama of Hdmatsa,
or cannibal dance, of
the Kwakiutl, as it
appeared when first
installed in 1904. The
diorama may be seen
again today in Gallery
IV, Hall 10. Neg. 16242.
(Color detail shown on
p. 18.) 3

Hdmatsa dress worn

by Bob Harris (left)

and Charles Nowell

(ri^tj, both Kwakiutl

Indians, at 1904 St.

Louis Exposition.

13583

culture was a legitimate interest within anthropol-
ogy and the systematic approach to identifying ma-
terials from which the objects were made, describ-
ing their use, and recording their social context, was
an appropriate curatorial activity. Such documenta-
tion justified the need to preserve apparently dying
arts and customs for future generations.

Inspired by the material culture of Indian and
Eskimo peoples who visited Chicago to demonstrate
their exotic lifeways at the World's Columbian Ex-
position of 1893, Boas helped establish the collection
that forms the core of the Field Museum's holdings.
In many respects his information about the material
of the Northwest Coast Indians is unequalled, and
for this the active participation of native people in
collecting and identifying it must be recognized.
Boas' primary native associate was George Hunt,
from the northern Vancouver Island Kwakiutl vil-
lage of Fort Rupert. Rigorously trained to record

13581

myths, legends, technology, and ceremonial events
in both English and his native language, Hunt pro-
vided a legacy of information that will continue to
overwhelm those seeking to use his contributions.

The Boas-Hunt tradition at the Field Museum
was continued in the first decade of the twentieth
century by a British Columbia-based medical doc-
tor, Charles F. Newcombe, and his Kwakiutl collab-
orator, Charlie Nowell. In 1901, Newcombe was
engaged to add to the Northwest Coast collection
and to plan and prepare exhibits that would feature
the culture of the people of this area. In 1902 he col-
lected mainly Haida material and later added ob-
jects from other tribal groups.

Great expositions continued to hold immense
public interest at this time and Newcombe took
several Kwakiutl and Nootkan Indians to the St.
Louis World's Fair in 1904. He and Charlie Nowell
stopped offin Chicago on their return to the Pacific

Northwest to plan collecting strategy, identify cer-
tain objects, and to discuss the displays that New-
combe was to design for the Field Museum.

Not all the objects Newcombe required could
be obtained from the field. As a result, Nowell and
his Denaktok village associate, Bob Harris, created
certain objects for the displays. The Newcombe cor-
respondence reveals how Charlie was asked to make
a (recentiv constructed) cradle "look old-fashioned"
by eliminating the "whiteman's paint" used to deco-
rate the piece.

Men such as Charlie Nowell had a vast sense of
humour and a flair for the theatrical, and they must
have greatly entertained those midwesterners
whom they came to know through the museum
project. And while performing and working for the
whiteman, they retained a conviction that what
they were offering was part of a real, living, and
viable tradition.

Perhaps the incident of cannibalism at St. Louis
is an indication of the sfxintaneous creativity and yet
serious intent of these roguish early associates
of the Field Museum. Among the many peoples
brought to the fair were a group of pygmies. Bob
Harris, the carver, was fascinated by them and be-
friended one by supplying him with extra food.
The Kwakiutl, assisted by their Nootkan associates,
staged a hamatsa, or cannibal dance for fairgoers.
In this most prestigious of Kwakiutl performances,
the dancer is said to be inspired by the spirit of a
ferocious man-eating njonster, who, at the begin-
ning of time stole humans from a village and took
them to his mountain fastness at the north end of
the world to eat. Inflamed by this awesome spirit-
power, the hamatsa dancer circles the floor of the
ceremonial house and appears to bite the arms of
certain members of the audience.

In time he is subdued by healing songs and the
actions of attendants and is returned to a state of
normalcy. As an alternative to the biting sequence,
the dancer may enter holding a corpse in his arms
and appear to eat it. Yet all of this was simply highly
staged theatre.

But back to the troujje in St. Louis. Bob Harris
was performing as hamatsa when the singers made
a mistake in the song. This angered him and Charlie
Nowell announced this fact to the sizable audience
viewing the performance. Attendants sought to re-
strain the enraged dancer, but he escaped their
grasp and rushed to a point on the stage where their
pygmy friend sat. Harris seized the diminutive fel-
low and rushed behind a painted screen. Then he
reemerged, handling his victim so roughly that the
pygmy screeched in terror. The hamatsa then placed
his captive on the floor and bit his neck so furiously
that blood spurted over the stage. The Kwakiutl
ended the presentation by cutting strips of flesh off
the corpse and eating them.

By all reports the crowd was outraged. Consta-

Haida totem pole
model carved by
Charles Ederishaw, c.
1900. Cat. 79696.

Northwest Coast
whistles. Gallery IV.

bles had to restrain the unfortunate victim's people
from attacking with sjjears. If Nowell is to be be-
lieved, a distraught Newcombe muttered that it was
murder and Harris would be hanged for certain.
Ever the orator, Charlie Nowell announced that his
people had done a great thing and had acted accord-
ing to the dictates of the winter dance.

Somewhat later the group proceeded to their
on-site dance house which quickly filled with fair
officials and curious onlookers. Harris danced
around the fire, shaking his rattle and singing. Then
he moved towards the remains of the unfortunate,
at this point covered by a mat , and sang an incanta-
tion over the body. As he sang, Nowell transla.ted the
words, indicating successively, "that fiesh was now
back on the bones; that the body was entire; and

that the body was finally quite warm." The cover-
ing was suddenly flung aside and the victim sat
up stiffly and slowly began to unlimber his body.
Charlie rose before the audience and addressed
them as follows: "I am very glad to learn that our
friend here, Bob Harris, done this great thing. You all
saw him when he ate the flesh of this little man that
is standing by his side. This is the same man that
was dead, and his flesh was all eaten up. Now he has
his flesh and his life back, and now he is alive. And I
am glad that there will be no law that will come
against us." (From "Smoke from Their Fires, The Life
of a KwakiutI Chief," by Clellan S. Ford, Yale Univer-
sity Press, Inc., 1941.) Sensing the drama of the
situation, Newcombe stood up and delivered a
lengthy speech in which he detailed the elaborate
theatrical achievements and other considerable
accomplishments of the Northwest Coast peoples.

Bob Harris was obviously a master of the theat-
rical prop. Even today his carving skills are remem-
bered. One informant claims his talent was so con-
siderable that when he completed a carving of a
grizzly bear, it transformed into a living animal.
Harris died shortly after this incident. He was a man
who had explored his stagecraft to the point where
people believed it became real, foreshadowing his
demise.

Happily, Nowell reveals the secret of their
amazing performance. Over several days Harris
carefulh' observed the pygmy and created a like
mannequin; he carved a head from wood and
modeled a body by scrupulously dissecting and rear-
ticulating a sheep's carcass, the "body" was then
smoked as a finishing touch. He simulated the
victim's cr\' with a whistle manufactured of wood
and reed and filled a bladder with animal blood for
the final effect.

Bob Harris and Charlie Nowell are but a few of
the great Northwest Coast Indian artists, singers,
orators, and chiefs of the recent past who are still
remembered today. In part, they are recalled
through archival records and anthropological pub-
lications but they also survive in the memories of
those still living who had the good fortune to know
the leading men and women of two or three genera-
tions past. There were many who successfully
bridged two worlds and made both all the richer
for it.

What of the forebears of those native people
who strove to help provide us with a written record
of their magic world? As far back as earliest Euro-
american contact with the northwest coast of North
America, certain jjersonalities emerged to be iden-
tified and described. The majority were chiefs who
quickly sought to control all communication with
the strangers and their novel trade goods. When
Captain James Cook landed on Vancouver Island's
west coast in 1778, he came to know the Moachat
Nootkan Chief named Maquinna. Cook entered ob-

.^jmm Northwest Coast
yM potlatch (detail),
Wl Gallery III.

servations about him and his people in his journals;
his staffartist, a man named John Webber, sketched
various village scapes, house interiors and portraits,
leaving an invaluable record. Some two decades
later an English-born ship's armorer sailing aboard
an American vessel was captured and enslaved bv
the same Maquinna for a period of two years. The
enslaved John Jewitt was eventually rescued and
survived to publish his memoirs, which have since
proved useful in attempts to reconstruct the history
of the early contact period in Maquinna's territory.

Other Euroamericans followed, some like Cap-
tain George Vancouver to assiduously chart the
North Pacific Coast of the continent. Others came to
exploit the sea otter trade, finding they could sell the
lustrous f)elts in China for huge profit. In time, this
source of income was slaughtered to a point of near
extinction and the maritime fur trade collapsed.
However, it was quickly replaced by a more perma-
nent land-based fur trade. This saw the advent of
the Hudson's Bay Company in 1820, and fortified

trading posts soon dotted the coast, continuing to
offer a wide variety of manufactured goods.

All this while the Indians remained in ascen-
dency, manipulating trade to their own advantage
and always outnumbering the whites. Then in 1862
tragedy struck. A ship from San Francisco reached
Fort Victoria with a passenger aboard suffering
from smallpox. Indians from along the entire length
of the coast were visiting Victoria and most con-
tracted the dread disease. As they made their way
northward, often ill and disspirited, they were
attacked by other groups who became unwitting
victims themselves. Unscrupulous traders entered
villages filled with decaying corpses, stripped blan-
kets from bodies and moved on to the next healthy
village to repeat the cycle. This unhappy chapter in
British Columbia's history was quickly over for want
of victims to work upon. Within two years, more
than one third of the native population of what is
now British Columbia died. The ravages of gun-
power, alcohol, mumps, measles, chickenpox.

tuberculosis and other infectious diseases also took
their toll, so that by 1929 the province s native popu-
lation reached an all-time low. This figure of 22,600
was down from a precontact estimate of 85,000.
The Haida living on the Queen Charlotte Islands
suffered most dramatically; they were reduced from
a probable 8,000 to 588 souls in 1915. Given these
figures, recoverv or retention of traditional culture
seemed impossible. Yet, people have tenaciously
held on, maintaining as much as possible despite
the onslaught of disease, and religious and civil
suppression so that today rebirth becomes
significant.

While common aspects of culture and envi-
ronment link the people living on the coast of north-
ern California to southeastern Alaska, major dis-
tinctions exist. Unifying factors include the tracta-
ble, versatile red cedar tree, which provides most of
life's needs: bark for clothing and rope; branches
and roots for withe and basketry; and the sturdy
trunk for houseplanks, canoes, boxes, totem poles,
utensils, and ceremonial objects.

The other constant in this distinct cultural and
ecological area is the salmon. Five species of this
anadramous fish spawn in rivers and streams, the
larger of which penetrate the Coast Range and p)er-
mit access as far as the Rocky Mountains. Additional
fauna and flora contribute importantly to life on
the Northwest Coast although salmon and cedar
prevail.

Yet even in the epicenter of this natural prov-
ince vast discrepancies occur. Certain gulf islands in
Puget Sound and Georgia Strait receive so little rain-
fall that a species of cactus actually flourishes in
isolated rocky areas. At about the time the cactus is
blooming some of the northernmost straits are
choked with flotillas of icebergs, calved off from
glaciers at the head of ^ords.

While it is easy to create the impression of
a moderate climate and an abundance of food,
hunger and even starvation were not unknown to
the coastal peoples. The farther north one travels,
the more rigorous becomes the food quest. The
range in climate between the northern and southern
borders is significant; on the Fraser and Columbia
Rivers, summer-caught salmon can be preserved by
drying in the hot canyon air. lb the north, the much
more labor-intensive method of smoking fish is
required, as the flesh will not cure in the cooler,
moister atmosphere of an Alaskan summer.

Within the vast area are fieoples whose lin-
guistic origins cover at least six language families.
Anthropologists prefer to describe these gross
categories as linguistic groups and from north to
south they include Tlingit, Haida, Tfeimshian,
Kwakiutl, Bella Coola, Nootkan, Coast Salish, and
Chinook. But we are dealing with such a time depth
here that mutually unintelligible languages have
developed within these general categories. For

example, there are actually nine separate languages
among the Coast Salish group although all are ulti-
mately derived from a common tongue.

Given the differences in environment and cul-
ture there is at least one universal denominator and
that is the sea. Its moods range from raging surf
flung by a winter's storm onto the jagged rocks of the
exposed outer coast to protected inland waterways
in summer as still as the sun at noon. Myriad islands
add miles of coastline offering both harbor and
succor. Through these passages Indian people ven-
tured, travelling hundreds of miles to trade, inter-
marry, or make war.

The summer's activities of gathering and fish-
ing saw people disbursed throughout the territory
often functioning independently as small famUy
groups in their pursuit of food. But as winter ap-
proached and gales mixed sea spume and rain as
one, people drew back to the permanent winter
villages and began an intense, introspective life
dominated bv the presence of ancient spirits that
left their mountain, heavenly and mythical retreats
to surround the villages during the sacred wdnter
season.

At this time people assume a new order, intro-
ducing personal names that are used only in the
ceremonial season. Society is ranked in a manner
that often differs from that of the secular summer
months. The mythic encounters of ancestors ac-
quired through descent, marriage, or warfare are
reenacted according to rigid privilege and if disputes
of ownership occur, intensely competitive gift-giving
may result in an attempt to gain supremacy over a
rival.

While the majority of dance dramas relate to
the time when the world was young and animals
could turn at will into human form and back again,
others,which on one level appear to be myths, relate
to actual events.

One lineage of Nishga people living on the Nass
River have a mask that when manipulated causes
the nose to extend almost two feet. The nose is a
telescoping device, controlled by strings. Its use re-
calls a legend that saw a monster step from a cave
and by extending its nose across a river valley, save a
village from a threatening lava flow. The lava beds
are very much in evidence today and geologists indi-
cate the eruption occurred no more than 300 years
ago. Such cataclysmic events demand explanation
and in time they become vested in myth.

When a family intends to display, assume, or
transfer jealously guarded prerogatives, they invite
witnesses to view the event. The presentation of a
series of dances could continue for several weeks
during which time guests must be fed and housed
by the host group. Displays might take place inside
a cedar plank house designed to accommodate as
many as 500 people. Here, at night, illusion was
enhanced by the flicker of firelight. Interplay of light

and shadow was created by the fire which aUer-
nately highlighted and obscured the magnificent
sculptural planes of carved masks and other stage
properties. Actors fell into the fire, were horribly
burned and then miraculously made whole. Women
were beheaded and then recreated. Sea monsters
festooned with kelp came trumpeting out of the sea
while small birds flew through the dance house
calling to one another.

Once the dance privileges were shown, the host
was required to distribute food and wealth goods to
his guests. By accepting the gifts, which were pre-
sented according to rank, the guests acknowledged
their host's claim to his entitlements. Thus, the
host's status was validated by the public witness of
his guests.

The apparent orgy of gift-giving horrified civil
and religious authorities, who petitioned the Cana-
dian government to ban the institution known as
the potlatch. Legislation was first attempted in 1884

but it was not until the earlv twentieth centurv that
individuals were successfully charged and jailed for
participating in events that encompassed all aspects
of society: ceremonial, religious, ritual, economic, -
and social.

1>emendous moral and legal pressure was put
up)on Indian jjeople to give up their old ways. The
fires of the human heart grew dim, yet many per-
sisted and were able to carry over important knowl-
edge oflanguage, culture, and tradition to the pres-
ent day. In 1951 the Canadian Indian Act was rewrit-
ten and the repressive sections against the potlatch
were simply deleted. Descendents of the determined
few are again standing where Charlie Nowell and
Bob Harris once stood. As did their forebears, they
have contributed substantially to the creation of a
magnificent new exhibit and have demonstrated
that the cooperation with native peoples established
as a precedent more than 75 years ago continues to
be a hallmark of the Field Museum. D

Carved argillite dish
Haida.Diam. 13~li
inches; 1894 gift of
J. L. Gould. Cat.
17952. Neg. 102063.

Field Museum Store

GALLERY 9

Museum Members and the general public are invited to a new
exhibition selling of the finest art works by top artists and
craftsmen of the Arctic and Pacific Northwest. The gallery
opening coincides with the opening of Hall 1 0.
Artists represented include:

Primrose Adams
Larry Avakana
Steve Brown
Joe David
Robert Davidson
Dorothy Grant
Calvin Hunt
Henry Hunt
Tony Hunt
Tony Hunt, Jr
Nathan Jackson
Jo^n Livingston

Melvin Olanna
Duane Pasco
Katie Pasco
Selina Peratrovich
Bill Reid
Cheryl Samuel
Jim Schoppert
Joe Senengetuck
Ron Senengetuck
Norman Tait
Art Thompson

All from British Columbia, Alaska, and Washington,
their works here assembled present a stunning array
of talent never before seen in Chicago. Included are
wood carvings, masks, jewelry totems, baskets,
weavings, serigraphs, and button blankets.

Gallery 9 Hours: 1 1-5 or by special appointment.

Museum Store Remodeled

The Museum Store, newly remodeled, is again open. A new
section, featunng choice items related to special exhibitions,
currently features a wide vanety of merchandise from the
Arctic and the Pacifc Northwest or related to the cultures
of those regions.

25 8«n. Poll aarortca. AlaV>a

Gallery III, "Village and Society. " Portion of exhibit showing personal adornment and clothing of Eskimos. Ron Testa photo.

Gallery III, "Village and Society." Portion of exhibit featuring ceremonial dress of Northwest Coast peoples is shown. Robe
in center belonged to Kasawak (Edwin Scott), a Haida chief. Behind the robe, on the wall, is a Haida button blanket. Ron
Testa photo.

Maritime Peoi

FISHING,HUNTING
and GATHERING

HALL 3

HALL 4

I Peoples of the Northwest Coast
Eskimo Peoples
Eskimo and Northwest Coast Peoples

£s OF THE Arctic & Nori

Hall 10

VILLAGE and SOCIETY

SPIRITUAL WORLI

ATION
ESS

KWAKIUTL HOUSE
everyday life

EMENT
ERNS

ERS
ARE

DOLLS and TOYS

KWAKIUTL HOUSE
ceremonial life

"^y-^y^

PERSONAL
ADORNMENT

HOUSE
^TYPES

CEREMONIAL
DRESS --^

PIPES
GAMES

HOUSEHOLD EQUIP-
MENT and TOYS

POTLATCH
('■gift-giving')

SALISH SPIRIT
CANOE CEREMONY

RATTLES WHISTLES
THEATRICS/

CHARMS KWAKIUTL

WINTER CEREMONY

SHAMAN'S
/ EQUIPMENT

bench audiovisual

unit

DE
kan

SETTLEMENT
PATTERNS

PERSONAL ADORNMENT
and CLOTHING

SKIN-WORKING

ESKIMO HOUSE

N(
No

DEATH and BURIAL

SHAMANISM
5HAMAN TRAINING

SHAMAN

DRUMS

HAMATSA

Tlingit, I
Tsims

bench) ^^'

bench

SHAMAN'S
EQUIPMENT

CEREMONIES
and FESTIVALS

bench

SHAMAN MA

HALLS

HALL 6

HALL 7

HWEST Coast

ART

KWAKIUTL
sITER CEREMONIAL

FKAN WINTER

^EMONIALS

an, Salish,

linook

'.SKS—

Bella
Coola

\SKS
■akiutlX

TWO-DIMENSIONAL ART
I SCULPTURE

BOXES

BOWLS

.VISUAL PLAY

SPOONS and LADLES-

PAINTING
BEAR in ART

BOX- and CANOE'
I MAKING

I V

BASKETS

MATS

BASKETWEAVING
MATERIALS

WOODWORKING

HORN-WORKING BASKET- and MAT-
WEAVING

ICONOGRAPHY

la, OTHER CEREMONIAL
T EOUIPMENT

/isual

lit

TOTEM
(Tlingit)

ENGRAVING

tr®

ee®

TOTEMS
akiuti and Hai

ART of
CHARLES EDENSHAW

GOLD and SILVER

ARGILLITE

PRINTS and
SCULPTURES

SERI-
GRAPHS

TOTEMS
(Nootkan)

audiovisual
unit

e ®

® ®

TOTEMS TOTEMS
(Bella Coola) (Salish)

bench

BLANKET-WEAVING SKIN-WORKING

bench

BLANKETS

HALLS

HALL 9

Gallery IV, "Spiritual World. " Life-size representation of Eskimo shaman dancing. Ron Testa photo.

Gallery IV, "Spiritual World." Diorama of Hdmatsa Society ceremony (Kwakiutl). The diorama was constructed in 1904, its
seven mannequins reproduced from life casts made on Vancouver Island, B.C., in 1899. Ron Testa photo.

June 18 -July 2

June 22: Early morning wildlife tour in
park; early afternoon motorcoach to
Fairbanks. Overnight Captain Bartlett
Hotel.

railway to Skagway. Free time to sight-
see, then to Klondike Hotel for overnight.
June 26: 5-hour boat curise to Juneau; to
Baranof Hotel for overnight, with stop at
Mendenhall Glacier enroute. Late after-
noon walking and van tour, including
historic district, gold mine, government
buildings; .outdoor salmon bake dinner.
Overnight Baranof Hotel.
June 27: Morning tour of Alaska State
Museum. Afternoon program on Alaska
Native Land Claims Settlement Act and
current native economic conditions.
Board cruise shipM.V. Statendam in late
afternoon. Meals on board begin with
dinner Cruise ship departs 11:00 p.m.
(Statendam is 25,000-ton luxury liner.)
June 28: Day of cruising on Glacier Bay;
lecture room provided to the group.
June29: Portofcall: Sitka. Special tour of
Sheldon Jackson Museum, National
Park Service exhibits, totem collection,
Russian Orthodox church, Baranof Cas-
tle site.

June 30: Cruising off British Columbia
coast.

Our tour leader will be Dr. Margaret
B. Blackman, associate professor of
anthropology at SUNY-College at
Brockport, New York, an authority on
native cultures of the Northwest Coast
and Alaska.

Maritime peoples of the arctic and northwest coast

A New Permanent Exhibit in Hall 10

by Carolyn Blackmon and Ronald L. Weber

Gau-erv ///. Cutaway

replica ofKwakiutl

house, with daily-life

20 fiimishings.

Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast
marks a new era for Field Museum. It is the first
major permanent collection to be reinstalled in
over forty years, and it signifies the beginning of
a new exhibit renovation program.

The Northwest Coast Indian and Eskimo
collections are of high importance for their
richness and diversity in materials, design,
craftsmanship, and regional variation. Collected
primarily for the World's Columbian Exposition of
1893, the artifacts represent these cultures between
1850 and 1920.

The five galleries within the exhibit follow a
structured approach to man in his several cultural
modes: people live within a space — their environ-
ment; they use their environment to obtain food by
fishing, hunting, and gathering; they devise shelter,
live in villages, and form a structured society; they
deal with the spiritual world and explain their
existence on the basis of religious belief; tools are

Carolyn Blackmon is chairman of the Department of
Education, Ronald L. Weber is visiting assistant curator.
Department of Anthropology'.

made and decorated, and works of art are created.
The Museum has used an innovative efTort in
combining the artifacts with appropriate infor-
mation. The challenge was to determine types
of visitor use and needs across the spectrum of
organized school groups to the casual visitor.
A strategy was devised to present three levels
of information that support the main themes.
Level I is reflected in the individual gallery titles
and large dynamic exhibits that present a major
concept or idea. Level II exhibits, surrounding
the central theme, are concerned with the
many separate stories that support the main
idea. These exhibits contain labels that often
call out special interest items. Level III provides
peripheral study areas that display similar

objects which were used for a specific purpose.
The exhibit floor plan (center spread, pp.
14-16) provides an overview of the strategy.

Assigning appropriate names for tribal and
other cultural groups within the context of the
exhibit, was not a routine matter. Some Canadian
Eskimos prefer to be know^n as Inuit, meaning
"real people" in their language. The Algonkian
-word Eskimo , meaning "raw flesh eaters," is
the only term that properly designates all of the
native inhabitants of the arctic area from Alas-
ka to Greenland. So Eskimo has been used in
the exhibit for all people of this region. The
misconception that all Eskimos share a close,
common identity derives from an external
vievi^oint; there is no single expression used

Gallery II. Alaskan
Eskimo fishing
equipment. 21

Gallery V. Northwest
Coast basketry.

bv Eskimos that lumps all of them together
in such a convenient fashion.

The same linguistic problem prevailed in
finding suitable cultural tags for peoples of the
Northwest Coast area. Today, those who speak
the Nootkan language prefer to be known as

"West Coast People" (west coast of Vancouver
Island). The word nootka has no meaning in
their language. But because the designation

"West Coast People" may be too easily confused
with "Northwest Coast People," the name
Nootkan — meaning Nootka speakers — has
been used throughout the exhibit.

•fS

Introduction

In the first two miniature dioramas, dealing solely
with the natural environment of the Arctic and
Northwest Coast, man is absent. However, the
resources which man depended upon are included
in detail. In "Prehistory," man is introduced into
both the Arctic and Northwest Coast areas. "His-
tory of Peoples" shows the history of European con-
tacts with Arctic and Northwest Coast peoples,
from a European as well as an Indian perspective,
and "History of Collections" considers how the
collection -originated. A short film about the
peoples of Alaska and the Northwest Coast as
thev live today completes the Introduction.

Fishing, Hunting, and Gathering

The two central dioramas present the chief
subsistence activities of the Eskimo, (sea hunt-

Gallery II. Model of
Nootkan salmon trap.

Gallery IV. Alaskan
Eskimo shaman
masks.

Gallery V. Alaskan
Eskimo walrus tusk
I engraving. Two lower
I pieces are carved as
'ttt' a cribbage boards.

ing) and of Northwest Coast peoples (salmon
fishing). Level II cases show fishing technology,
food gathering, and transportation, among
others. A 16-foot Nootkan style salmon fishing
canoe is on view, complete with paddles, boxes,
and hooks. The boat was built specially for the
new exhibit by Lance Wilkie, a Makah Indian
of Neah Bay, Washington; baskets and mats
made by Margaret Irving, also a Makah, of Neah
Bay, have been placed in the canoe.

Level III study areas contain halibut hooks,
trap sticks, and clubs for use on seals and fish.
The Eskimo side of the gallery contains materials
concerned with land hunting, whaling, fishing,
transportation, and the hunting and utilization
of the seal. This gallery joins Hall 4, where one
may find general information on Pre-Columbian
American Indian food gathering patterns.

Village and Society

The replicas of Eskimo and Kwakiutl houses are
constructed in cutaway fashion. On the Northwest
Coast side are the two side-by-side Kwakiutl house

Gallery IV.

Accoutrements of

Kwakiutl winter

ceremony.

replicas, identical in structure; the first contains
the materials of daily life, the second is arranged
for ceremonial activities. In the daily-life replica,
fronted with glass, a woman in calico tends a fire
as she prepares to roast mussels. In the house's
sleeping room, left rear, two men are passing the
time at gambling. A mixture of traditional and
European goods are to be seen about the house.
The houseposts have the raven crest on top.

The ceremonial house is a walk-in exhibit,
furnished only with an elaborately designed,
portable, three-sectioned ceremonial dance screen
that features the raven crest. A large, circular hole
in the screen's center reveals a number of masks
behind it. The houses were constructed on site for
the exhibit by Kwakiutl Indians Tony and Calvin
Hunt, and John Livingston; the masks were made
by Doug Cranmer and Richard Hunt, also
Kwakiutls.

On the west wall we find a cutaway replica
of a subterranean Eskimo house. The Village and

Society gallery enters directly into Hall 5, which
contains the Museum's renowned Pawnee earth
lodge. Thus, three distinct North American house
types, all within close proximity to one another,
may be readily compared. Settlement patterns,
house types, trade, warfare, clothing, personal
adornment, toys, games, and pipes are also here.
An exhibit of the potlatch (gift-giving) prepares
the visitor for the next gallery, the Spiritual World.

Spiritual World

To the right we see a representation of an Eskimo
shaman dancing. A few steps beyond, and to the
left, we are confronted by the arresting figure of a
Kwakiutl Hamatsa initiate and dancer emerging
from a dance screen. This diorama, with seven
life-size mannequins, was completed in 1904. The
figures were modeled from life casts made on
Vancouver Island in 1899. Nearby cases provide

90P*%

information on shamanism, curing, and the winter
ceremony. Beyond the Hamatsa diorama we come
upon an awesome collection of spectacular masks,
arranged by region of origin.

Art

Twenty-three towering totem poles and houseposts
carved by Tlingit, Haida, Bella Coola, Kwakiutl,
Salish, and Nootkan artists dominate the area.
Exhibits include animal crests, two- and three-
dimensional art forms, transformation themes
in art, and the working of wood, horn, skin, argil-
lite, and metals. The division of labor between
men and women is treated in sections on mat-
making, basketry, and blanket-weaving. An exhibit
of serigraphs, hand-silk-screened prints, features
the current renaissance of Northwest Coast art.
A case devoted to the artist as an individual pre-
sents works by John Robson, Charles Edenshaw,
and his descendant the contemporarv Robert
Davidson. The gallery also contains works by John

Cross, Doug Cranmer, Joe Daxdd, Stan Green, Bill
Reid, Roy Vickers,Johnny-Kit-Elswa, and Xa'niyus
(Bob Harris), in addition to many fine pieces by
unknown artists.

Level III study areas containing boxes,
bowls, spoons, baskets, mats, and blankets display
superb pieces of artistry and craftsmanship. Since
Eskimo artists generally work on a small scale,
ivory engraving and stone-carving, the section
dealing with their creations is on a correspond-
ingly small scale. Among the contemporary
Eskimo artists represented are Kingmeata,
Kakulu, and Joseph Senungetuk.

Major funding for "Maritime Peoples of the
Arctic and Northwest Coast" has been provided
by grants from the National Endowment for the
Humanities, with additional funding from the
National Endowment for the Arts, Chicago Park
District, the Barker Welfare Foundation, the Robert
R. McCormick Charitable Trust, and the Frederick
Henr\' Prince Testamentary Trust. D

Gallery I. Diorama of
Northwest Coast
environment.

April & May at Field Museum

Apnl 16 to May 15

Neiv Exhibits

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest
Coast." Hall 10. A dramatic new, permanent exhibit
opens April 24! This innovative exhibit compares and
contrasts the theatrically ornate cultures from the
North Pacific Coast with the austere but individu-
alistic Eskimo societies. Situated along the 5,000-
mile coast of the Northern Pacific and Arctic
oceans, these two distinct cultures have adapted
to differing environments by using similar tech-
niques to harvest the riches of the rivers and oceans.

Enter the Introductory Gallery (I) from Hall 3
on the northeast corner of Stanley Field Hall. Here
the lush forested Northern Pacific area is compared
to the barren tundra of the Arctic. The Northwest
Coast Indians and the Eskimos both lived by hunting
and fishing; they never depended on agriculture.
How they hunted, fished, and gathered from the
land and sea is explained in Gallery II. Full-sized
house replicas of each group are featured in the
Village and Society Galleiy (III). The Spiritual World
Gallery (IV) defines the inter-relationships of the
human, animal, and spiritual world. In the final
gallery (V) the stunning art of the Northwest Coast
Natives and Eskimos is dramatically presented.
The towering totem poles and tiny scrimshawlike
engravings exemplify the rich artistic heritage
of these groups.

Here is an exhibit you'll enjoy at a leisurely pace,
but will want to return to again and again.

Gallery Nine. Special exhibit area in front of Hall 9.
An art gallery for viewing and purchasing. The work
of the 21 modern Northwest Coast and Eskimo art-
ists on display represents an exciting renaissance in
their art. From April 24 to May 25.

Museum Bookstore. Look for the newly remodeled
Museum gift and book shop facilities when visiting
the Maritime Peoples exhibit.

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic

and Northivest Coast"

S{)ecial Programs

Contemporary Arts Symposium. "Echoes of the Past,
Tides of Change." Five noted Northwest Coast Indian
and Eskimo artists speak authoritatively about the
state of North America's richest and most famous
artistic heritage. A related Learning Museum event.
Sunday, April 18, 1:30 to 3:30 p.m. Members: $6.
Nonmembers: $8.

Northwest Coast Lecture Series. "Strategies of So-
ciety: Social Organization." The second lecture series

concentrates on the social structures of Northwest
coast tribes and how their art is integrated into those
societies. You may attend the whole series or any
individual lecture. Each lecture is given by a leading
authority on native cultures of the Northwest. En-
trance for these 8 p.m. lectures is through the West
door. The series is $9 for Members and $12 for non-
members. Single lecture is $3; $4 for nonmembers.
May 14: "Kwakiutl Winter Ceremonies," bv Peter
Macnair, Curator of Anthropology, British Columbia
Provincial Museum, Victoria, British Columbia.

Opening Festivities

Member's Preview. Hall 10. April 22 and 23, from
1 p.m. to 9 p.m. Hilary Stewart, consultant for the
exhibit's labels will be on hand to discuss the exhibit.
The West Coast Singers and Dancers from British
Columbia will perform on Thursday only (April 22)
from 4 to 5 p.m.

Pole Raising. Outside Museum's North entrance at
1 p.m. In honor of this new exhibit, Field Museum
will erect its first outdoor artifact — a 55-foot totem
pole named "Big Beaver," carved by Nishga artist
Norman Tait. The pole-raising will be accomplished
with traditional native ceremonies. April 24 at 1 p.m.

Ceremonl^l D.-\nces. Stanley Field Hall. A group
of Nishga dancers will perform dances like those
which commemorate important events in tribal life,
to dramatize the totem pole raising. April 24 and
25 at 3 p.m.

Kwakiutl Dances. Stanley Field Hall. See a Museum
exhibit come to life! Kwakiutl winter ceremony
dances will be performed just as they are pictured
in the exhibit. April 25 at 11 a.m.

Craft Demonstrations. Stanley Field Hall. Some of
the Kwakiutl and Nishga dancers are also excellent
artists. They will demonstrate in a variety of media
using regional materials such as wood, bone, and
grasses. April 25 at noon.

New Programs

Dinosaur Scavenger Hunt— A Weekend Family
Program. Participants can go on a "dig" in Field
Museum's Dinosaur Hall (Hall 38) by using a spe-
cially prepared self-guided tour. Volunteers and
staff will be on hand to help families discover
more about these fascinating creatures. Tour

Lifesize mannequin of
Kwakiutl Hdmatsa Soci-
ety initiate, in Hall 10,
Gallery IV ("Spiritual
World"). Initiates, clothed
just in hemlock boughs,
were inducted only dur-
ing the society's winter
ceremonials.

begins at the head of the Apatosaurus, the largest
dinosaur, in Hall 38. April 17 and 18 from 1 to 3 p.m.

Edward E. AyerFilm Lecture Series. The Spring
1982 series of these popular adult-oriented travel
films is beginning at a new time — 1:30 p.m. Admis-
sion is free through the West Door. Members receive
priority seating.
April 17: "South and East Africa" with

Ted Bumiller.
April 24: "Himalayan Odyssey" with

Frank Klicar.

Spring Journey. "A Touch of Field Museum." This
self-guiding tour covers such touchable exhibits as
bones, meteorites, and polar bears. Free Journey
pamphlets available at Museum entrances.

Weekend Discovery Programs. Tours, craft proj-
ects, slide presentations, and films which use Field
Museum exhibits as a springboard for new insights
into natural history projects are featured on Satur-
days and Sundays. Check Weekend Sheet available at
Museum entrances for added programs.

1 p.m. "Malvina Hoffman." Film and
slide lecture concentrates on Portraits
of Mankind collection commissioned
by Field Museum.

1 p.m. "The World of Dinosaurs." Tour
of dinosaur collection covers basic facts
and some speculations.

1 p.m. "Dragons." Tour compares the
dragons of Tibet and China with those
from the West.

2 p.m. "Tibetan Life and Rehgion." Slide
lecture contrasts Tibet today with tra-
ditional life. Tour of Museum's Tibetan
collection will follow lecture.

11:30 a.m. "Ancient Egypt." Tour explores
everyday life from myths to mummies.

1 p.m. "The Brontosaurus Story." Slide
program surveys dinosaurs and other
prehistoric animals.

2 p.m. "Malvina Hoffman." Film and
slide lecture.

May 15 3 p.m. "Life in Ancient Egypt." Tour
introduces newly installed exhibit and
describes practices of Nile Valley inhab-
itants such as mummification.

Continuing Programs

Volunteer Opportunities. Individuals with scien-
tific interests and backgrounds are needed to work in
various Museum departments. Contact the Volun-
teer Coordinator, 922-9410, ext. 360.

April and May Hours. In April, the Museum is open
daily 9a.m. toSp.m., except Fridays. During May,
the Museum is open every day 9 a.m. to 6 p.m.,
except Fridays. On Fridays, throughout the year, the
Museum is open 9 a.m. to 9 p.m.

The Museum Library is open weekdays 9 a.m. to 4
p.m. Obtain a pass at the reception desk, main floor.

Museum Telephone.- (312) 922-9410

.r\

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin

May 1982

W-

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

Presidetit: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Kathryn Laughlin
Calendar: Mary Cassai
Staff PJwtographer: Ron Testa

Board of Trustees

James J. O'Connor

chairmaji
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gorden Bent
Bowen Blair
Willard L. Boyd
Mrs. Robert Wells Carton
Stanton R. Cook
O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
MarshaU Field
Richard M. Jones
Hugo J. Melvoin
Charles F. Murphy, Jr.
Lorin I, Nevling, Jr.
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
William L. Searle
Edward Byron Smith
Robert H. Strotz
John W. Sullivan
William G. Swartchild, Jr.
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Julian B. WiUdns
Blaine J. Yarrington

Life Trustees

Harry O. Bercher
Joseph N. Field
Paul W. Goodrich
Clifford C. Gregg
Samuel Insull, Jr.
WilUam V. Kahler
William H. Mitchell
John M. Simpson
). Howard Wood

CONTENTS

May 1982

Volume 53, Number 5

Charles Darwin: A Tribute from the Standpoint
of Modem Evolutionary Theory

by Bruce D. Patterson, assistant curator.
Division of Mammals

Thinking Scientifically

by John Tirrell, associate curator.
Department of Anthropology

Alaska Tburfor Members

8
13

Philippine Emergerwe

Learning Museum Program

by Bennett Bronson, associate curator. Department

of Anthropology and Anthony Pfeiffer,

project coordinator

Theatre Sans Fil

Giant Puppet Show Comes to Field Museum
June 26, 27

Field Museum Tour to Australia

18
19

Sorrte Responses to Early Contact
on the Pacific Northwest Coast

by Marlene Mussell

Our Environment

20
25

Field Museum Tburs to Kenya and
to the Baraboo Range

May andjune at Field Museum

Calendar of Coming Events

COVER

Hollow bronze representation of the ancient E^ptian god
Horns inform of a falcon. The bird wears the sacred cobra,
or uraeus, emblematic of sovereignty, and the double crown
of united E^pt. Eyes are overlaid with gold. About actual
size. On view in case 17, HallJ. Gift of Stanley Field andEmest
R. Graham. Cat. no. 173231.

PHOTO CREDITS. Cover: NP148; p. 3, 4, 9: courtesy Bettmann Archive lnc.^_10
Historical Pictures Service, Chicago; p 11- Bettmann A'ch^ Inc. P.l^ ^44375,
p. 15: N21450; p. 16: N23491; p. 17 (top): N22067; p. ^^ (bottom). N23248^18
Thpatre Sans FiT D 19 Qantas; p. 20: National Mantime Museum, p 21 N10t3b/J
^11 N1^66 p'^23 N108468; p. 26 (top): Edward Olsen; p 26 (bottom): Audrey
Faden.

Field Musfum of Natunl History Butlriin (USPS 89S-940) is putjtished monthly, except combined
July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Uke Shore Drive,
Chicago, n 60605 Subscriptions: $6.00 annually »3.00 for schools. Museum membership
indudes Bullelm subscription Opmions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. UnsoUcited manuscripts are welcome Museum
phone (312) 922-9410. Postmaster: Please send from 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History,
Roosevelt Road at Uke Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605 lSSN:001S-0703. Second class postage
paid at Chicago, n.

Charles Darwin: A Tribute

from the Standpoint

of Modern Evolutionary Theory

by Bruce D. Patterson
Assistant Curator, Division of Mammals

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On April 19, 1882, Charles Darwin died; he was
in the 74th year of his life. Plagued by infirmities
for much of his adult life, Darwin had led a life
of quiet reflection at his family home in Down,
England. Darwin's thinking was to produce a
revolution in the way in which we view nature
and ourselves. Perhaps no other scientist in
history has so radically reordered human aware-
ness. The centennial of Darwin's death presents
an occasion for the celebration of human achieve-
ment and genius.

Darwin's insights into evolutionary phe-
nomena were nothing short of remarkable. His

Bruce Patterson, who joined the Field Museum staff in 1981,
IS the recent recipient of the James H. Davis Prize, awarded
by the Graduate School of New Mexico State University, Las
Cruces, for his doctoral dissertation.

Charles Darwin,
age 61

theory of evolution via natural selection was
simplicity itself: 1) All biological populations are
variable in myriad characteristics relevant to
survival and reproduction; this variability is in
part heritable. 2) Each biological population
produces vastly greater numbers of offspring
than are necessary for the replacement of the
parental population (Darwin calculated that the
descendants of a single pair of slow-breeding
elephants would number more than 19 million
after as little as 750 years, were each to survive
and reproduce). Thus, 3) there must be a con-
stant "struggle for existence" in which favored
variations come to predominate in populations
via differential survival and reproduction. While
the two tenets of evolution via natural selection
were well established prior to Darwin, it took

Alfred Russel Wallace

(1823-1913),

co-discoverer of the

theory of evolution by

natural selection.

Darwin's genius to combine them in such a way
as to conclude that living organisms should be
embroiled in unceasing evolutionary change.

The inherent plausibility of evolution by
natural selection was, however, not sufficient to
sway a skeptical scientific and public audience.
Darwin opened his first notebook on facts in
relation to the origin of species in July, 1837,
shortly after returning from the now-famous
voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle. He was to spend
much of the following two decades amassing
evidence for his ideas on the mutability of spe-
cies. During this period of incubation, Darwin
wrote numerous scholarly works, on such dis-
parate topics as the formation of coral reefs, the
nature of earthquakes, the actions of earth-
worms, and the systematics of barnacles.

Darwin's theory on the origin of species
was presented to the scientific community in
abstract form in the company of a nearly identi-
cal, but independently derived, version written
by Alfred Russel Wallace. The two papers on

natural selection were published simultaneously
in the fournal of the Proceedings of the Linnean
Society in 1858. Much later, Darwin was to write
that "our joint publications excited very little
attention.... This shows how necessary it is that
any new view should be explained at considera-
ble length in order to arouse public attention."

The Origin of Species, the single most influ-
ential work of Darwin's career, was pubhshed
the following year, in November, 1859. The first
edihon of 1,250 copies sold out on the day of
publication, and a second edition of 3,000 copies
soon afterwards. By 1876, 16,000 copies of the
book had been sold in England, and translations
of the book had appeared in most European
languages. In his personal letters, Darwin re-
ferred to this work as an "abstract" of a longer,
more definitive work on the same subject —
perhaps the Origin can be seen as an abstract of
all his scientific work, the theme about which
his various studies were drawn.

The 1860s saw the publication of four other
books by Darwin. These were followed in Feb-
ruary, 1871, by the publication of the Descent of
Man. In the introduction to that work, Darwin
stated: "During many years I collected notes on
the origin or descent of man, without any inten-
tion of publishing on the subject, but rather
with the determination not to publish, as I
thought that I should thus only add to the prej-
udices against my views. It seemed to me suffi-
cient to indicate, in the first edition of my 'Origin
of Species,' that by this work 'light would be
thrown on the origin of man and his history';
and this implies that man must be included
with other organic beings in any general conclu-
sion respecting his manner of appearance on
this earth." Emboldened by the general acclaim
given the Origin by contemporary scientists,
Darwin published the application of this general
theory to human evolution.

The Descent of Man produced a radical
change in human perception of the natural order,
overthrowing the concept of man's sovereignty
over nature that had prevailed in philosophy
since the dawn of civilization. By affirming our
kinship with nature, our place amid countless
other species of organisms in a system of ever-
branching genealogy, Darwin stole our domin-
ion but bequeathed us an extended family. More
than a century later, we still feel the profound
impact of this philosophical revolution.

We at Field Museum are especially indebted
to Charles Darwin. His theory of evolution
makes intelligible a vast body of scientific obser-
vations: it defines the way in which we view the
interrelationships of organisms, and even the
way that specimens are arranged in our research
collections (scienhsts use genealogy as an order-

Darwin spent eight years (1846-54) studyingyarious species of barnacles, and pub-
lished two large monographs on the subject. Those shown here are from an 1851 edi-
tion. In his autobiography he noted that "The Cirripedes form a highly varying and
difficult group of species to class; and my work zvas of considerable use to me, when I
had to discuss in the Origin of Species the principles of a natural classification."

ing principle much as librarians use the Library
of Congress classification system). Many of the
questions Darwin raised in the nineteenth cen-
tury still persist as the most fundamental and
challenging questions in biology. These ques-
tions serve as focuses of scientific debate, and
comprise the basis for much of the research
conducted by curators at the Field Museum.
Among them are:

• What is the tempo of evolutionary change?
Does evolution proceed by gradual, incremental,
and continous changes, or is change a sudden
phenomenon followed by extended periods of
evolutionary tranquility?

• Why are there gaps in the fossil record, where
we look for evolutionary intermediates? Are
these attributable to imperfections of the fossil
record or to the mechanism of evolution?

Darwin's view of the

formation of barrier

reefs and atolls in

consequence of the

subsidence of islands

was first published in

1842; an initial stage

in this geological

process, shown here,

is from that study.

Darwin later wrote

"No other work of

mine was begun in so

deductive a spirit as

this, for the whole

theory was thought out

on the west coast of

South America, before

I had seen a true coral

reef. I had therefore

only to verify and

extend my views by a

careful examination of

living reefs"

• What is the basis for major evolutionary
novelties (such as the power of flight or image-
forming eyes)? Do these result from a steady
accumulation of minor genetic changes or from
the single occurrence of a "macromutation?"

• How much of evolutionary change can be
attributed to adaptation, and how much must
be ceded to historical artifacts, structural cor-
relations, and genetic drift?

• Is there a tendency toward greater complex-
ity of organization or perfection in evolutionary
sequences? Are evolutionary survivors more
adapted than extinct forms, or were they luckier
in avoiding randomly occurring extinctions?

• What are the units of selection? While natural
selection clearly operates among individuals of
a population, can it also operate at the level of
genes, chromosomes, populations, and species?

• How closely should biological classifications
reflect relationships based on descent ("clad-
ism") versus relationships based on similarity
("gradism")?

• What is "altruism" in an evolutionary sense?
Do units of selection ever behave in such a way
as to endanger their own prospects of genetic

representation in subsequent generations?

• What is the role of competition in ecological
communities? Is competition an on-going pro-
cess or do competitive problems demand evolu-
tionary solutions?

• What is the basis for species abundance?
Why are some species rare and others greatly
abundant?

In 1979 and 1980, the research staff at Field
Museum published more than 120 books and
articles on natural history. (To give some notion
of scale to this production, the 21 papers pub-
lished in Fieldiana — the Museum's continuing
monograph series — totalled almost 3,400 pages!)
Virtually all of these works have bearing on
evolutionary theory, serving to further develop
and refine Darwin's vision of life. The enormous
research efforts directed towards evolutionary
theory by scientists at Field Museum and else-
where serve as testaments to Darwin's genius
and understanding.

Darwin closed his Origin of Species on a
philosophical note that has become the basis for
biophilosophy, or the philosophy of life: "There
is grandeur in this view of life, with its several
powers, having been originally breathed by the
Creator into a few forms or into one; and that,
whilst this planet has gone cycling on according
to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a
beginning endless forms most beautiful and
most wonderful have been, and are being
evolved ."D

J^13®e

Darwin clearly perceived the underlying similarity between nature's selection of favorable variations and that vracticed by
farmers and ranchers everywhere; this analogy was central to his theory. "Variation under domestication" was the title of the
first chapter of the Origin of Species as well as the subject of a book published in 1868, from which this illustration is taken .The
science of genetics, which would subsequently prove fully complementary to Darwin's theory, was also an outgrowth of the
study of domesticated varieties.

Field Museum Library Holdings of the
Works of Charles Darwin

BOOKS

The Zoology of the Voyage of the H. M.S. 'Beagle,' Underthe
Command of Captain Fitzroy, R.N., during the Years 1832
to 1836. London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1939-1943.
Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands and Parts
of South America Visited during the Voyage of H. M.S.
'Beagle.' Srd. ed. New York: D. AppletonandCo., 1891.
Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology
of the Countries Visited during the Voyages Round the
World of H.M.S. 'Beagle.' 2nd ed. London: John
Murray, 1890.

The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. 3rd ed. New
York: D. Appleton and Co., 1889.
The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. 3rd.
ed. London: John Murray, 1861.

On the Various Contrivances by which Orchids are Fertilized
by Insects. 2nd ed., rev. New York: D. Appleton and
Co., 1892.

The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants. 2nd ed.
New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1893.
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.
Isted., 1st issue. London: John Murray, 1868.
The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. 1st
American ed. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1871.
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, (n.i.).
New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1894.
Insectivorous Plants. 1st American ed. New York:
D. Appleton and Co., 1875.

The Effects of Cross' and Self-fertilization in the Vegetable
Kingdom, (n.i.). New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1892.
The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Spe-
cies, (n.i.). New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1893.
The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Action of
Worms, with Observations on their Habits. 1st ed. Lon-
don: John Murray, 1881.

MONOGRAPHS

"A Monograph on the Fossil Lepadidae or Peduncu-
lated Cirripedes of Great Britain." Paleontographical Soci-
ety, 1851.

"A Monograph on the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Fig-
ures of all the Species." Ray Society, 1851-1854.
"A Monograph on the Fossil Balanidae and Verrucidae
of Great Britain." Paleontographical Society, 1854.

NOTEBOOKS and LETTERS

Charles Darwin's Diary of the Voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle.'
Edited by Nora Barlow. Cambridge University Press,
1934.

Darwin's Ornithological Notes. British Museum (Natural
History) Hist. Ser. 2. British Museum (Natural Histo-
ry), 1963.

The Foundations of the "Origin of Species"; Two Essays
Written in 1842 and 1844 by Charles Darwin. Edited by
Francis Darwin. Cambridge University Press, 1909.
Notebooks on the Transmutations of Species. Edited by
G. de Beer. British Museum (Natural History), 1960-
1961.

Charles Darwin on the Routes of Male Humble Bees.
British Museum (Natural History) Hist. Ser. 3. British
Museum (Natural History), 1968.
Charles Darwin's Queries about Expression. British Muse-
um (Natural History) Hist. Ser. 3. British Museum
(Natural History), 1972.

The Autobiography of Charles Darwin, 1809-1882. Lon-
don: Collins, 1958.

The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin. Edited by Francis
Darwin. London: John Murray, 1887.
More Letters of Charles Darwin. Edited by Francis Dar-
win. London: John Murray, 1903.
The Collected Papers of Charles Darwin. Edited by Paul
Barrett. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972.
Extracts from Letters Addressed to Professor Henslow by
C. Danvin, Esq. Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1960.
Letters between Charles Darwin and Illinois Natural-
ist Benjamin D. Walsh. Original copies, (see Bulletin of
Field Museum of Natural History 45(1):8-15)
plus a number of technical journals in which Darwin
published his shorter works {e.g. Journal of the Proceed-
ings of the Linnean Society, Geological Society Proceedings,
etc.)

plus dozens of biographical and semibiographical
works covering Darwin's role in the development of
modern biological science

If several copies of a work are to be found in the Museum
Library, the earliest edition is given here. Holdings are gen-
erally arranged by date of original publication. The notation
"(n.i.)" indicates no additional publishing information is
available.

Thinking Scientifically

The modem battle between evolution and creation science
reveals that many people do not understand how science works

by John Terrell

Associate Curator of Oceanic Archaeology and Ethnology

"About thirty years ago there was much talk
that geologists ought only to observe and not
theorise; and I well remember some one saying
that at this rate a man might as well go into a
gravel-pit and count the pebbles and describe
the colours. How odd it is that anyone should
not see that all observation must be for or against
some view if it is to be of any service!" This
comment by Charles Darwin shows what the
zoologist Michael Ghiselin has argued was the
secret of Darwin's success: he was a man who
thought. He reasoned imaginatively and
carefully. He criticized his own ideas.

This quotation comes from a letter Darwin
wrote in 1861 to Henry Fawcett, a radical
Cambridge economist and follower of John
Stuart Mill, the philosopher and logician. The
letter dates from a time little more than three
years after Darwin first made public his own
controversial, some said radical, theory about
the origin of new species of plants and animals
by means of natural selechon. The most
important point in his comment is perhaps this
one: all observation must be for or against some
view if it is to be of any service. The philosophy of
science implied by this statement — that facts,
however diligently gathered, do not alone prove
anything — was as controversial in the mid-nine-
teenth century as Darwin's views on the origin
of species. Nowadays, of course, everybody
knows that theories, hypotheses, and specu-
lation are as basic to science as the most solidly
established facts. Or do they?

For nine days last December Judge William
Overton heard scienhsts and lawyers challenge
Arkansas' new "creation science" law. Act 590.
The law said creationism, based on the Bible,
merited equal treatment with the teaching of
Darwinian evolution in primary and secondary
schools. Judge Overton ruled against the law: in
his opinion, creation science was not science at
all, nor did it fit general descriptions of "what
scientists think" and "what scientists do."

Defenders of the law had argued that both
creationism and Darwinian evolution are equally
valid, alternative scientific models. Echoing
Darwin's critics of more than a hundred years
earlier, they noted that evolutionary theory

could not be proved with certainty. Hence, they
said, evolution — like creationism — is not a true
scientific theory. Such an argument, however
well-intentioned, reveals that people even today
do not understand how science works.

Darwin respected the need for theories and
hypotheses in scientific work, regardless how
contrary to established thought and traditional
common sense they might be. He was always
on the lookout for facts. But once he had
established a fact by what he thought was
reasonable observation, he would at once begin
to ask questions suggested by that fact to see if
he could construct some tentative hypothesis
which could explain not only that singular fact
but might also be applicable to other cases. He
would then proceed to see if his hypothesis did
work in those other situations. As Darwin
described his method of research: "my general
line of argument" is one of "inventing a theory
and seeing how many classes of facts the theory
would explain."

Sometimes he rebuked himself for "my
common error of being too speculative." But he
knew better. As he wrote in 1857 to Alfred Russel
Wallace, the co-discoverer of the theory of evo-
lution by natural selection: "I am extremely glad
to hear that you are attending to distribution in
accordance with theoretical ideas. I am a firm
believer that wdthout speculation there is no
good and original observation. Few travellers
have attended to such points as you are now at
work on; and, indeed, the whole subject of
distribution of animals is dreadfully behind that
of plants. You say that you have been somewhat
surprised at no notice having been taken of
your paper in the Annals. 1 cannot say that I am,
for so very few naturalists care for anything
beyond the mere description of species."

This last remark — that few naturalists care
for anything beyond the mere description of
species — sounds perhaps extreme. However, it
may reveal Darwin's self-consciousness about
the degree to which his research, and Wallace's,
departed from accepted methods of inductive
science.

The inductive approach in science is com-
monly traced back to the Elizabethan philoso-

Thomas Nast cartoon
of Charles Darwin
(rt.) and the founder
of the Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals. Caption
reads: "The defrauded
gorilla: 'That man
wants to claim my
pedigree. He says he is
one of my descendants. '
Mr. Bergh: 'Now, Mr.
Darwin, how could
you insult him?"

pher and statesman Francis Bacon, who railed
against speculation, insufficiently founded on
fact, in his book The New Organon, published in
1620. Simply described, the "new principles"
set down by Bacon show how you can build an
ideal argument from particular cases to arrive at
true, scientific laws.

The historian David Hull reports that scien-
tists and philosophers in the mid-nineteenth
century were fully aware of the shortcomings of
Bacon's logical approach. Science had not and
could not progress solely according to his meth-
ods of true induction. Even so, during the last
century someone who reasoned instead the
way Darwin did, using the less formal but far
more realistic logical process of give-and-take
between fact and theory, was apt to be imme-
diately suspect — especially if the ideas being
put forward were as heretical as those of organic
evolution. To a great extent. Bacon had set the
tone for so rigid a view of proper scientific logic
when he wrote: "Those, however, who aspire
not to guess and divine, but to discover and
know, who propose not to devise mimic and
fabulous worlds of their own, but to examine
and dissect the nature of this very world itself,
must go to the facts themselves for everything."

Given this intellectual heritage, it hardly
seems surprising that Darwin at times tried to
impress his readers that his theory of evolution
had grown more out of facts than clever specu-
lation. He claimed in his Autobiography that he
began his investigations on the evolution of
new species in 1837 by working "on true Baconi-
an principles, and without any theory collected
facts on a wholesale scale." Only after fifteen

months had passed in this way and after he
happened to read for amusement Thomas Mal-
thus's Essay on population did the idea of natural
selection due to the struggle for existence finally
occur to him, so that "I had at last got a theory
by which to work."

This account does make it appear that Dar-
win discovered natural selection by gathering
facts and letting them speak for themselves. But
from all his writings, including his Autobiography,
it is clear enough that the basic concepts of evo-
lution had, in fact, already begun to form in his
mind during his voyage on the Beagle to the
South Pacific in 1831-1836. More than that, from
his notebooks written in 1837 and 1838 it is known
that he had struck on the idea of natural selection
before reading Malthus.

After the publication of the Origin of Species
in 1859 Darwin was genuinely disturbed by the
harsh criticism he received. He had expected
people to be abusive about what he had to say
for he knew he was challenging fundamental
beliefs about Creation and humankind's place in
nature. But he was not prepared for the attacks
against his methods. Some of the most respected
scientists and philosophers of his day dismissed
his ideas by saying his book was little more than
pure conjecture and that he had proved nothing.
There is little need to wonder why Darwin later
warned his young friend John Scott, a gardener
and self-taught botanist, to be "very sparing in
introducing theory in your papers (I formerly
erred much in Geology in that way): let theory
guide your observations, but till your reputation is
well established be sparing in publishing theory.
It makes persons doubt your observations."

Samuel "Soapy Sam"

Wilberforce, (1805-73),

who defended Anglican

Christianity against

the Darwinian heresy.

Both the success of Darwin's scientific work
and the bitter criticism leveled against his ap-
proach and his person point to a disturbing
conclusion. The late biochemist and Nobel lau-
reate Jacques Monod observed that the world of
science can be divided into two camps: those for
whom truth resides in solid objects, actually
and fully present, and those who look beyond
particular things for the ideal forms they repre-
sent. "There are but two kinds of scholars,"
concluded Monod, "those who love ideas and
those who loathe them."

This judgment is unjust. The world of
science and scholarship cannot be divided neatly
into extreme opposing camps. But we should
take a note of warning from Monod's observa-
tion. Evidently some people even within science
become suspicious if they believe you are going
beyond the facts. It may be too facile to say such
persons "loathe ideas." But how then do facts
and theories fit together in science?

A scientist's approach to the world is marked
by three characteristics. First, science is based
on observation. Regardless how skillfully you
phrase your research questions or how clever
your speculative ideas, if you cannot find a way
to answer your questions or test your ideas by
making observations, then you cannot properly
be said to be "doing science." In short, while

perhaps some scientists may loathe ideas, no
scientist can embrace the option of loathing
facts of observation.

While science is based on observation, it is
generally understood that science is more than
a collection of diligently gathered facts. As the
mathematician Henri Poincare wrote: "Science
is built up of facts, as a house is built of stones;
but an accumulation of facts is no more a science
than a heap of stones is a house." Thus, another
characteristic of science is wanting something
more than isolated facts. That is, the aim of
science is to generalize about people and nature.

If you think about it, this aim is paradoxical,
because these first two characteristics of science
— observation and generalization — are con-
tradictory; namely, scientists rely on their pow-
ers of observation to make generalizations about
the world that can never be observed, because
the conclusions of science are always about
things in general, not things in particular!

This paradox is one that bothers many peo-
ple. It does mean that even the simplest gener-
alization is at least one step "beyond the facts."
This is the reason for the great importance
universally placed on a third characteristic of
science. In the words of Poincare again: "Every
generalisation is a hypothesis."

What this means is that the process of mak-
ing observations and forming generalizations
never stops. Every scientific generalization is
only provisionally "true," because you can never
be absolutely sure that the next observation you
make — which perhaps by all rights ought to be
precisely like the ones you have been making
— may not surprise you after all and turn out to
be quite different, instead.

The importance of all three of these charac-
teristics of science — observation, generalization,
and hypothesis — is not always seen. For exam-
ple, one of the supposed villians in the history
of science is Bishop Samuel "Soapy Sam" Wil-
berforce. His role in defending Anglican Chris-
tianity against the Darwinian heresy is often
cast as that of an ignorant, outmoded divine
who fought and lost a hopeless rear-guard action
against the superior forces of enlightened scien-
tific truth. As Richard Wrangham of Cambridge
University observed several years ago, however.
Soapy Sam's protests actually show he believed
natural selection to be a more powerful force
than Darwin himself allowed. "To the Bishop
natural selection maintained adaptation, and
perfect adaptation reflected God's perfection.
It was the imperfection of Darwinian natural
selection, rather than its overwhelming power
to affect species, which worried him."

Wilberforce wrote a lengthy review of Dar-
win's book for the Quarterly Revieiv of July 1860

which Darwin declared "picks out with skill all
the most conjectural parts, and brings forward
well all the difficulties." In some respects modem
creationists sound no different from Wilberforce,
for he, too, claimed Darwin's theory was based
on "the merest hypothesis, supported by the
most unfounded assumptions."

Even if the Bishop's arguments against the
Origin did on occasion find their mark, the lesson
for us remains the same. Wilberforce believed
that the complicated patterns of the organic
world reveal Truth and the Power of God. Dar-
win, on the other hand, knew that all scientific
generalizations, including those in the Origin,
are only hypotheses ever in need of experiment
and conhnual testing. Unlike the Bishop, he
was content with something less than absolute
truth. "My book has been well abused, praised,
and splendidly quizzed by the Bishop of Oxford;
but from what 1 see of its influence on really
good workers in science, 1 feel confident that, in
the main, I am on the right road."

We have now come to another quandary
over which philosophers of logic and science
have spent a great deal of time in argument and
writing. Let us accept that the truth of a scientific
idea is something that must be judged by seeing
how well it organizes observations that have
already been made and how well it sets us on
the road to making new observations that ought
to fall into line in some predicted way if we are
at all on the right track. Then what are we to say
about ideas that lead us to observations that we
cannot make, either because we have not yet
found the evidence needed to make them, or
because we have not invented the tool that
would let us see things in quite the manner
required?

The biologist C.H. Waddington in his book
Tools for Thought wrote that to use the scientific
method effechvely, you need to know how to
ask important questions and then how to devise
experiments that will give you clear-cut answers
one way or the other. But as he observed, a
clear, well-phrased question in itself is of possi-
bly little use if there is no way of answering it.
"It was no use asking perfectly clear and definite
questions about the consistency of the moon's
surface until there was some way of sending
either a man or a probe up there to obtain an
answer Similarly, there are many questions
about history and evolution which can be very
defirutely stated, but which will probably always
remain unanswerable."

Waddington is a little misleading. There is
no way you can be absolutely sure beforehand
whether a question is answerable until you
have asked it. Familiarity with a scientific subject
and the sorts of questions that others have asked

Henri Poincare (1854-
1912), French mathe-
matician, who wrote,
"Science is built up
of facts, as a house is
built of stones; but an
accumulation of facts
is no more a science
than a heap of stones
is a house!

may equip you to ask useful questions that are
probably answerable, too. But such a cautious
pursuit of ideas is not likely to lead to truly star-
tling discoveries.

Waddington's own conclusion, therefore,
about the qualities of the talented scientist is
hardly a useful instruction: "It is the ability to
formulate clear-cut questions which invite yes-
and-no answers, where a technique exists, or
can be invented, to obtain these answers, which
separates the successful scientist from the merely
competent professional." This statement begs
the issue, particularly when he adds: "or can be
invented." An ironic illustration that this is so
comes from Darwin's own career.

A month after the Origin was published, no
less an old friend than the Rev. Adam Sedgwick,
Darwin's former teacher of geology at Cam-
bridge, wrote to him in complete dismay. "If I
did not think you a good-tempered and truth-
loving man, I should not tell you that ... I have
read your book with more pain than pleasure.
Parts of it I admired greatly, parts I laughed at
till my sides were almost sore; other parts 1 read
with absolute sorrow, because I think them
utterly false and grievously mischievous. You
have deserted — after a start in that tram-road of
all solid physical truth — the true method of
induction, and started us in a machinery as
wild, I think, as Bishop Wilkins's locomotive
that was to sail with us to the moon."

One of Darwin's biographers. Sir Gavin de
Beer, has remarked that Sedgwick attacked Dar-
win's methods because he could not successfully
impugn his seemingly irrreligious views by
refuting his facts. Seen in hindsight, however,
the Rev. Sedgwick could not have made a more
unfortunate choice of analogy with which to
damn Darwin's ideas than what he called Bishop
Wilkins's "locomotive."

John Wilkins, theologian and preacher,
scientific experimenter. Warden of Wadham
College, Oxford, and ultimately Lord Bishop of
Chester, was the single most influential organ-
izer and popularizer of science — notably the
new Copernican astronomy — in seventeenth
century England. He was a founder of the Royal
Society. And as author of The Discovery Of A
World In The Moone, which first appeared in
1638, and several later works on science, Wilkins
was the most important thinker of his century
on manned flight as a scientific problem. It was
he who forecast the invention of the aircraft —
what Sedgwick called Bishop Wilkins's locomo-
tive— and the development of space travel.

This incident from the life of Charles Dar-
win— with its ironic twist of fate that the person
Sedgwick held up to Darwin as similarly misdi-
rected is now seen as astonishingly foresighted
— points to yet another feature of scientific think-
ing that is as significant as the others we have
previously mentioned. Contrary to what Wad-
dington seems to have been saying when he
wrote that a clearly defined question is of no
use if there is no available way of answering it,
scientists cannot afford to limit their inquiries
solely to those questions for which they expect
or hope to find decisive answers that will settle
matters once and for all.

For example, the fact that scientists had
been trying to devise a single, unified theory
of light since the seventeenth century without
success — until the work of Planck and Einstein
at the start of the present century — in no way
lessens the significance of the research accom-
plished or the questions asked. Like it or not,
scientists must face the fact of life that knowledge
is rarely adequate enough to rule out all but one
of the possible theories that could explain the
same phenomena in different ways.

In short, one of the certainties of science is
that most of the really interesting questions that
we want to ask have more than one plausible
answer. Indeed, as the history of thought bearing
on the nature of light shows, we ought to be
especially watchful when it looks as if competing
theories can at last be reduced to one. After
all, the rival "wave" and "corpuscular" theories
of light waxed and waned in complementary
fashion for two hundred years, only to be com-

bined— paradoxically — into the ruling quantum
theory of the present day. Need it be added that
even the quantum theory of light is now subject
to doubt and challenge?

Thus, to the three characteristics of a scien-
tific approach to the world — observation, gen-
eralization, and hypothesis — we have now
added two more. These are, first, the scientist's
acceptance of his or her fate that one can never
be 100 percent right on any question of real
complexity and excitement; and second, the
scientist's recognition that knowledge is rarely
complete enough to rule out all but one of the
plausible ways of answering even the clearest,
most carefully defined question about the world
and human events. On the contrary, the history
of science cautions us to be wary if we seem to
be arriving at only one explanation to some
problem. In such a situation, there is a good
chance nature is only fooling us. Or perhaps
more likely, we are only fooling ourselves.

Nothing we have discussed here should be
taken to imply that scientists and philosophers
of science are today in full agreement about
how science works, about how scientists think,
or about how science differs, say, from art,
ethics, or religion. Nothing could be farther
from the truth. And in a way, that is precisely
the point. Science may not, and perhaps cannot,
lead to absolute certainty or ultimate truth. The
test of good science is instead whether you are
traveling, in the main, on the right road, for sci-
ence is how you travel, not a final destination. D

Further reading

de Beer, Gavin, Charles Darwin. London: Thomas
Nelson and Sons, 1963

Hull, David, Darwin and His Critics. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1973

Monod, Jacques, Chance and Necessity. New York:
Vintage Books, 1972

Ospovat, Dov, "Darwin after Malthas," Journal of the
History of Biology, Vol. 12, no. 2 (1979), pages 211-30

Poincare, Henri, Science and Hypothesis, New York:
Dover Publications, 1952.

Ruse, Michael, The Darwinian Revolution. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1979

Shapiro, Barbara, John Wilkins, 1614-1672. Berkeley,
Cal.: University of California Press, 1969

Waddington, Conrad, Tools for Thought. London:
Paladin, 1977

Wrangham, Richard, "The Bishop of Oxford: not so
soapy," New Scientist, Vol. 83, no. 1167 (9 August 1979),
pages 450-51

Alaskan

. NATfVE CULTUEE TOUR FOR MEMBERS

June 18 -July 2

June 22: Early morning wildlife tour in
park; early afternoon motorcoach to
Fairbanks. Overnight Captain Bartlett
Hotel.

June 23: Special tour and lecture for Field
Museum by University of Alaska, on
ivory and totem carving, agriculture,
permafrost construction, oil develop-
ment, economic situation, etc. Overnight
Captain Bartlett Hotel.
June 24: Fly Fairbanks to Whitehorse.
Yukon River raft trip and outdoor BBQ
dinner Overnight at Travelodge.
June 25: Day-long trip on narrow-guage

railway to Skagway. Free time to sight-
see, then to Klondike Hotel for overnight.
June 26: 5-hour boat curise to Juneau; to
Baranof Hotel for overnight, with stop at
Mendenhall Glacier enroute. Late after-
noon walking and van tour, including
historic district, gold mine, government
buildings; .outdoor salmon bake dinner.
Overnight Baranof Hotel.
June 27: Morning tour of Alaska State
Museum. Afternoon program on Alaska
Native Land Claims Settlement Act and
current native economic conditions.
Board cruise shipM.y. Statendam in late
afternoon. Meals on board begin with
dinner. Cruise ship departs 11:00 p.m.
{Statendam is 25,000-ton luxury liner.)
June 28: Day of cruising on Glacier Bay;
lecture room provided to the group.
June 29: Port of call: Sitka. Special tour of
Sheldon Jackson Museum, National
Park Service exhibits, totem collection,
Russian Orthodox church, Baranof Cas-
tle site.

June 30: Cruising off British Columbia
coast.

Our tour leader will be Dr Margaret
B. Blackman, associate professor of
anthropology at SUNY-College at
Brockport, New York, an authority on
native cultures of the Northwest Coast
and Alaska.

TTii's solid gold, 4'/2-lb.

statue, acquired by

Field Museum in

1922, is the single

most spectacular find

yet made in Philippine

archaeology (according

to H. Otley Beyer,

who for decades has

been the dean of

archaeologists in the

area). The Buddhist

goddess was made ca.

AD. 1100-1300 and

demonstrates an Asian

influence on Philippine

culture dating back to

A.D. 1000 at the latest.

LEARNING MUSEUM CONTINUES WITH

Philippine Emergence

By Anthony Pfeiffer, Project Coordinator
and Bennet Bronson, Associate Curator of Asiatic Archaeology and Ethnology

Just southeast of China, forming a barrier
between the South China Sea and the Pacific
Ocean, seven thousand islands stretch in a chain
a thousand miles long. The chain is anchored

by large islands at either end: Luzon to the north
and Mindanao to the south. Now known as the
Republic of the Philippines, this archipelago
holds a striking variety of cultures. They are at

once a tribute to the overwhelming force of
colonial occupation and a testament to the fierce
endurance of native traditions.

People first settled the archipelago hun-
dreds of thousands of years ago when sea levels
were low and one could walk between the
Philippines and neighboring islands. Eventually
the immigrants became sailors and farmers.
Early Filipinos and their Malayo-Polynesian kin
sailed to Africa and far into the Pacific. The
farming peoples of the northern Philippines
built colossal stone-walled terraces for their rice
fields, terraces which became one of the wonders
of the world. The peoples of the south were
traders, warriors, artists, and weavers of some
of the world's finest and least known textiles.
There was arfistic accomplishment in the central
Philippines as well, but we know little about it.
About 400 years ago most aspects of the origi-
nal Central Filipino culture were altered so
completely as to obliterate everything that had
gone before.

The agents of this extraordinary change
were a handful of overdressed foreigners who
appeared as explorers in 1521 at the thriving
port of Cebu, just north of Mindanao. They
stayed for a few months, then left hurriedly
after their leader, Ferdinand Magellan, was
killed in a fight on a neighboring island. They
left one object behind: a miniature statue of the
child Jesus, a gift to the Cebu queen. She could
not have imagined that this figure would come
to be worshipped by 30 million Filipinos or that
it would transform her land more completely
than any other part of Asia.

Christianity came again to the central areas
in 1565, borne not by explorers but by conquerors.
By 1600 the soldiers and missionaries of Spain
ruled half the Philippine land area and three
quarters of its people. Shrines and idols were
destroyed. The old leaders were Christianized
and Hispanicized or replaced. Palaces for the
new leaders sprang up, along with churches,
monasteries, universities, and cities. The ancient
arts disappeared as did much else, except for
the local languages and certain foods and
attitudes. The creativity of the Filipino people
was inexorably channeled into Spanish ways.

Many Filipino traditions, such as reverence
for the dead, thanksgiving after harvest, and
fear of evil, were easily incorporated or reinter-
preted in the light of Christianity. A heritage
of craftsmanship was turned to new themes.
Instead of flnztos, or guardian figurines, for exam-
ple, Filipinos began to make ornate statues of
the Virgin Mary, some with realistic and deli-
cately carved hands of ivory. Philippine-made
ivory saints became the state of the art and were
exported to churches in Spain and Mexico.

Mindanao chief (Bago-
bo tribe). The ornate
textiles he wears are
legacy of pre-Hispanic
southern Philippines.

^.\y>

Only in the extreme north and south of the
Philippines did the old ways survive. Warlike
peoples — the "pagans" of the northern moun-
tains and southern jungles and the Moros or
Muslims of the coastal lands of eastern Minda-
nao and Sulu — fought the Spanish to a stand-
still. They were incessant raiders who sought
slaves, loot, and — those who were headhunters
— heads. They fought skillful defensive wars
against Spanish pacifying expeditions.

The real stars of the resistance were the
Moros, possessors of a brilliant artistic culture,
talented weaponsmiths and shipbuilders, and
masters of amphibious and trench warfare tac-
tics. For more than three centuries they kept the
Spanish at bay. In the early 1900s they fought
fiercely against the Americans. They have con-
tinued to resist the government of the Philip-

Sultan's grandson

poses in typical Mow

style: with hand poised

on sword. Standing

boys are his servants.

pines since its independence from the United
States in 1946. Few peoples in history have
fought for their freedom so effectively and long.

The effect of centuries of Spanish occupation
in cultural terms was to divide the Philippines
into four parts: the unconverted areas of north-
ern Luzon, the non-Muslim and non-Christian
interior of Mindanao, the Muslim coastal areas
of the southern islands, and the Catholic central
part of the country. The last of these is the one
that now dominates. More than ninety percent
of Filipinos form part of the initially Hispanicized
and then Americanized national culture, which
most Americans (and Filipino-Americans) think
of when they use the word "Filipino."

Yet the minority cultures are uniquely fas-
cinating. They are a study in contrasts. The iso-
lated Bilaan of Mindanao live in poor, plain
shacks, but their clothing and textile arts are
among the most splendid in Asia. Ifugao peoples
of Luzon are exheadhunters, talented sculptors,
and — with their great rice terraces built of
stone — landscape architects on a truly titanic
scale. For centuries the Moro Tausug of Sulu in
the far south withstood the war fleets of the
Spanish Empire in cannon-armed canoes. Al-
though seeming like backward savages, the
Hanunoo of Mindoro know agriculture as well
as any Illinois farmer; their own alphabet, devel-
oped in prehistoric times, was used not for re-
cord-keeping but for writing poetry.

These minority cultures are important

because they closely represent what all of the
Philippines was like before the Spanish came.
To Filipino- Americans, almost all of whom come
from majority culture backgrounds, the "other"
Philippines provide a key to their heritage. Is
the Philippines just an extension of the West,
mysteriously transplanted on Southeast Asian
soil? Or are the Spanish-style food, the fine
American-style education system, and fervent
Catholic faith just thin veneers on an essentially
Asian land? Such questions can be answered
only by studying non- Westernized minorities
and pre-Spanish history.

Philippine Emergence affords the oppor-
tunity to explore Philippine roots from their
deepest prehistoric origins to their most recent

The Learning Museum at Field Museum

The Learning Museum Program began at Field Muse-
um in 1979 with a grant from the National Endow-
ment for the Humanities (NEW, a federal agency.
The NEH grant allowed the Museum to present a
three-year sequence of learning opportunities focused
on its outstanding exhibits and collections. Courses
were designed to give participants an opportunity to
explore a subject in depth. Field Museum is pleased to
announce that the Learning Museum program con-
tinues as a featured offering in Course for Adults
brochures. The program emphasizes special Museum
activities and strengths as it did under NEH funding.

controversial moments. The lecture course con-
siders the pre-Spanish phase of Philippine his-
tory, the Spanish period, the living or recently
vanished minority cultures of the far North and
South, and the role of the Philippines in world
affairs today. Philippine Emergence is offered in
conjunction with "The Art and People of the
Philippines," an exhibition opening at Field
Museum on July 17. Details of the course are
announced in the summer 1982 Courses for Adults
brochure.

Watch also for the announcement of Filipino
Afternoon in the July/August Calendar of Events.
You are invited to celebrate the traditions of the

Entire mountains such
as those seen here were
spectacularly trans-
formed into rice ter-
races by the farmers of
the Cordillera Central,
Luzon.

Philippines. Dances from the Philippines, pre-
sented by Lakambini of the Urban Gateways
Folk Arts Program, are among the day's featured
activities. Lakambini is a troupe of young artists
who are dedicated to their Filipino cultural her-
itage. Their dances reflect the Indo-Malaysian,
Muslim, and Spanish influences found through-
out the islands. Lakambini dances to the Kulin-
tang orchestra, traditional music made on a set
of graduated gongs. A narrator provides back-
ground information on the culture and arts of
the Philippines and Filipino- Americans. Filipino
Afternoon is held on Sunday, July 18 from 1 to
4 p.m. and is free with Museum admission. D

Moro sailboat of the
type often used in
raids against the
Spanish and for pirat-
ical expeditions. 17

PUPPETS EXTRAORDINAIRE:

Theatre Sans Fil

(The No Strings Puppet Theatre)

James Simp)son Theatre

June 26, 27

2:00 p.m.

Members: $3.00; Nonmembers: $4.00

This unique theatre medium of gigantic puppets (6 to
12 feet tall) makes its first apjjearance at Field Museum
on June 26 and 27 with two American Indian legends,
"Blue Sky Takes a Wife" and "The White Raven? The
entire fascinating production is entitled "Tales fixjm
the Smokehouse?

Adults and children alike marvel at the striking
visual and musical eflFects employed in the enactment
of these ancient tales, in which more than 40 enormous
puppets apjjear. Reviewers have termed the production
"cm absolutely elegant pupjjet show that brings a my-
thic experience to life in rapturous detail? The program,
a Learning Museum event, is made pwssible by a grant
from the National Endo\vment for the Humanities.

The only Canadian company to work with giant
puppets, the Theatre Sans FU has develojjed new tech-
niques for their fabrication and manipulation. The
Theatre Sans FUs was founded in 1971 and now has
nine productions to its credit. The comjjany's reputation
has grown steadily over the years and it was chosen to
represent Canada at the International Pupjiet Festival
in Washington, D.C. in 1980.

For ticket information, please call (312) 322-8854.
Tickets will also be available at the West Door box
office one hour before curtain time.

Field Museum Tours for Members

Australia Tour

August 23-Sqytember 12
Tour Price: $4,998 (double occupancy)

Leader of this extraordinary tour is Dr. Alan Solem, curator and
head. Division of Invertebrates, who has made nine trips to Aus-
tralia in connection with his study of land snails. The tour will fea-
ture the glory of the Western Australia spring, the greatest display
of wildflowers in the world, the charm of an English countryside in
South Australian vineyards, a face-to-face meeting with eastern
Australian wildlife in Victoria, and the awesome expanses and
spectacular mountains of central Australia.

The tour will arrive in Sydney on August 25, then take a 75-
minute flight to Melbourne. The two days in Melbourne will in-
clude visits to a local wildlife sanctuary as well as to various sites of
cultural interest.

A 40-minute flight on August 27 will take the group to Ade-
laide, followed by visits to local vineyards. A 90-minute flight that
evening will terminate at Alice Springs, the group's base of opera-
tions for six days. Highlights here include sight-seeing into the
outback, bush barbecues, and a visit to spectacular Ayers Rock.

September 3 will be spent in and around Perth. Rides by

hydrofoil and river boat will be optional. September 4 will be spent
traveling by motorcoach to Augusta while viewing some of Aus-
tralia's most delightful scenery.

September 5: A trip to Walpole-Normalup National Park, see-
ing 200-foot-high stands of red tingle trees, September 6: Colorful
Albany, an old whaling port. September 7; A day trip to the Poron-
gorup and Stirling mountain ranges.

September 8: Return to Perth via the Albany Highway, with
views of the Darling Range. September 9; Perth, with time for
shopping and sight-seeing. September 10: In Sydney for a day of
leisure for shopping, sightseeing, or day tours.

September 11: Depart from Sydney for U.S. Having lost a day
by crossing the International Date Line, we overnight at San Fran-
cisco's Sheraton Airport Hotel.

September 12: Arrival in Chicago.

For additional information on this tour, please write or call
Dorothy Roder, Tours Manager, at Field Museum, 322-8862.

...- 19

Some Responses to
Early Contact on the
Pacific Northwest Coast

by Marlene Mussell

rost early documentation of European contact
Lwith the Northwest Coast peoples amply
records the reactions of the explorers, their
arrogance, curiosity, fear, amusement, and
admiration; but such reports largely fail to re-
count the natives' response to such contacts. By
using European documentation as well as native
oral traditions, we may arrive at an enlightening
and somehmes amusing view of two cultures
trying to understand and categorize one another.
This may also yield a more balanced viewpoint,
and a clearer picture of the groups' mutual reac-
tion emerges.

The discoveries of these early explorers
validated the existence of what Europeans had
termed the "New World," although the popula-
tions of this continent had emigrated here from
Siberia some 20,000 to 40,000 years earlier. A
tradition which was to evolve into the historic
Northwest Coast culture had emerged by at
least 1,000 B.C., and by 500 B.C. there is evidence
of an antecedent Northwest Coast art style.
Captain James Cook's Thus, a complex and highly evolved society
ships in Nootka Sound, ^^g ^^ ^^^^ t^ witness its own discovery by
B.C. Drawing by ■ i-,,,!

John Webber (1778), Europeans m 1741.
20 expedition artist. The first contact occurred in that year

between Vitus Bering, a Dane in the employ of
the Russians, and the Tlingit, near Cross Sound,
Alaska. This meeting was followed three years
later by that of the Spaniard Juan Josef Perez
Hernandez, who encountered a Haida group
on Graham Island, B.C. In 1778 Captain James
Cook, of England, made contact with the
Nootkan of Nootka Sound, B.C., and in 1786,
the French admiral La Perouse traded with the
Tlingit in Lituya Bay, B.C. Other expeditions
also occurred during this period, but these four
highlight the internationalism of the discovery
of the Northwest Coast, involving as it did Rus-
sian, Spanish, English, and French explorers.
In their accounts, many of the explorers
tended to emphasize only what they felt was
the Indians' awe and fear upon first seeing the
white man and his great ships. While these
reacHons were most natural, such descriptions
seem to contradict the explorers' reports of the
Indians' occasional aggressiveness, and their
willingness not only to approach the European
ships, but to climb aboard and barter for trinkets
and pieces of iron. European reports also often
failed to acknowledge the Indians' contributions
to the discoveries of the European. By using
Indian oral traditions, another view of such
discoveries emerges. Thus, Captain Cook's
"discovery" of Vancouver Island is given a less
familiar and perhaps more down-to-earth
approach in this contemporary Nootkan oral
account: "They were led into a shelter, these ships.
They got stuck. They were anchored out in the
open Pacific and a bunch of Indian people. . .

Marlene Mussell is a volunteer for the project "Maritime
Peoples of the Arctic and the Northwest Coast."

directed these ships that couldn't get in, 'cause
they didn't know, and they were told to come
around that point."'

A more balanced and probably more realis-
tic report of early encounters concerns the first
meeting between the Tlingit and members of
the 1789 Malaspina expedition: "The first view,
when they were near was one of great astonish-
ment, both for the Indians and for us; for the
Indians because they did not cease looking at
the ships, ... for us because such strange and
marvelous subjects presented themselves to our
sight'.'^ Each side captured these early meetings
through their art; the Europeans by painting
scenes of their ships "on location," and the
Indians by carving petroglyphs.

Both groups tended to focus on aspects of
the other's culture and appearance to which
they could relate in terms of their own back-
grounds. One of Cook's men, for example,
compared the Nootkan to the Scottish in
appearance.^ William Beresford, a member
of Captain George Dixon's 1789 expedition,
described a woman whose "countenance had
all the cheerful glow of an English milkmaid; . . .
she was what could be reckoned handsome
even in England.'"* The Indians seemed hard
put to classify the Europeans, but the visitors'
strange appearance was soon explained in cul-
tural terms.

To the Tlingit, the members of La Perouse's
expedition looked like small black birds rising in
the body of a great black raven. As the Tlingits'
creator, Yehlh, often assumed the form of a
raven, they thought that Yehlh had now
returned to earth in this guise. As the sails were
folded and the sailors climbed the rigging, it
appeared to the Tlingit as if great birds were
folding their wings, and from them, flocks of
small black messengers were rising and flying
about. ^ The Nootkan reasoned that since the
Europeans lived on a floating thing — the ship
— then the visitors must be fish, a notion con-
firmed by the appearance of two expedition
members in particular: a man with a large
hooked nose who was surely a dog salmon, and
a hunchback who must have been the humpback
salmon transformed. Even today a Nootkan
word for "Europeans" is mamal'ni: literally,
"people who live on the water and float around,
having no land."*

Finally satisfied that these strangers were
indeed human, the Indians were willing to trade;
but before this could get under way, a welcoming
ceremony was performed from the canoes. In
1778, James King, lieutenant on Cook's ship, the
Resolution, describes such a welcoming cere-
mony: "the figure and actions of one of these
(Indians) were truly frightful, he worked himself
into the highest frenzy, uttering something

^^^-J^

miif^:^^'Wem»m-r0'

Petroglyph on Wed-
ding Rocks, Cave
Alava, B.C., snowing
explorers' ships. -i

Man of Nootka

Sound. Portrait by

John Webber, 1778.

between a howl and a song, . . . this was followed
by a violent way of talking, seemingly with vast
difficulty in uttering the Harshest and rudest
words." King concludes however: "yet we did
not attribute this incantation to threatening or
any ill will towards us; on the contrary they
seem'd quite pleased with us. . ."^ La Perouse
similarly describes such a reception, concluding
that these songs were by no means disagreeable,
"greatly resembling the plain chaunt of our
churches."® David Sam well, surgeon's first mate
on the Resolution, also writes about the Indians'
singing in terms easily accessible to an English-
man of those times: "they all sung in concert in
a wild Manner, which some of our sailors com-
pared to that of a Brother Tar on board who it
seems in his time had cryed Potatoes about
London."'

Most of the early discoverers noted how
much Northwest Coast Indians enjoyed singing,
and Samwell described what must have been an
intereshng cultural exchange between two
groups who finally found a medium that they

could enjoy and share together. After a Nootkan
"sang in concert in no disagreeable Stile," the
ship's crew reciprocated, giving "them in return
a few tunes on two french Horns after their
song was ended, to these they were very atten-
tive, not a word to be heard among them during
the time of playing; this situation was returned
by another Song from the Indians, after which
we gave them a Tune on the Drum and Fife to
which they paid the same attention as they had
done to the Horns. These Canoes staid by the
Ship most of the Night seemingly with no
other View but that of gratifying their Curios-
ity."^° It is interesting here to note the Indians'
attentiveness; for they observed the Europeans'
performance with a cultural curiosity similar
to that of the many explorers. The so-called
observers had become the observed.

At times, both groups obviously regarded
the other with a certain contempt, possibly
because each felt superior. The Indians' con-
tempt found expression in stealing whatever
they could lay their hands on. De Laguna writes
that the Tlingit seized what they desired only
from inferiors.^' Because the Europeans also
often failed to reciprocate courtesies, especially
with respect to the chiefs, the natives may have
decided that the visitors were fair game for cheat-
ing and theft. This sense of their own superiority
is underscored by the fact that when caught
stealing, the nahves behaved as though it were
just a joke. Samwell records that when a native
was apprehended stealing Captain Cook's
watch, he "gave it up quietly and laughed in his
(captor's) face."^^ Samwell also notes that "they
considered it as a piece of Dexterity (even sport)
that did them credit ra(ther) than any dishon-
our."'^ La Perouse, for one, angrily denounced
these "deceitful and malicious savages" who
took every opportunity to rob whenever no one
was looking.'*

While the early explorers have left us
thorough accounts of the natives' exotic apparel,
utensils, and material culture in general, we
have little information on how the Indians
viewed or responded to the material culture of
the Europeans. In part, this is because members
of nonliterate societies are dependent on their
oral tradition as the medium for documenting
historical events and their own responses to
them. The importance of this oral tradition as
an historical resource has not always been fully
realized, though it has been shown that native
history can be passed down orally, through
generations, with minimal modification of fac-
tual content. Such an oral tradition among the
Northwest Coast peoples records their attempts
to come to terms with and understand European
goods.

■^.

I, I ', \ \ I ! ' W

rtiT

mvmm^m^mmiummmA

While Europeans puzzled over the meaning
of the potlatch gift-giving ceremony, carved
totem poles, masks, and other items, the Indians
tried to cope with such everyday European
goods as pilot biscuits, syrup, and hatchets.
One Nootkan recounts that, bewildered by gifts
of pilot biscuits, the Indians simply stored them
away as good luck charms. Another relates how
the biscuits were regarded as lovely pieces of
wood to be kept as souvenirs. A European
hatchet was worn by a chief as a necklace; instead
of being eaten, syrup was tried as a crack sealant

for canoes in the way that Indians normally
used hot seal oil. ^^

Again we see the natives attempting to categ-
orize a cultural curiosity so they could more
readily comprehend it. Lieutenant King wrote
— and his words could refer just as eas-
ily to the native response to the European: "It
will require the assistance of ones imagination
to have an adequate Idea of the . . .Actions of
these first Visitors."'"' One should add that the
use of both oral and written traditions is also
required, n

House interior, Nootka
Sound. Drawing by
John Webber, 1778.

Notes

1. Efrat, Barbara and W.J. Langlois, "The Contact
Period as Recorded by Indian Oral Tradition" in Nu.
tka. Captain Cook and The Spanish Explorers on the Coast.
Sound Heritage, Vol. VII, No. 1: 54-62, 1978. p. 55

2. De Laguna, Frederica. Under Mount Saint Elias:
The History and Cultureofthe Yakutat Tlingit, Part I and II.
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 1972.
Part I., p. 141.

3. Beaglehole, J.C. The Journals of Captain James Cook
on his Voyages of Discovery: The Voyage of the Resolution
and Discovery 1776-1780, Vol. Ill, Part I and II. Cam-
bridge published for the Hakluyt Society at the Uni-
versity Press, 1967. Part I, p. 311.

4. Dixon, Captain George. A Voyage Round The
World; hut more particularly to the North-West Coast of
America: performed in 1785, 1786, 1787 and 1788. George
Goulding, London, 1789. p. 171.

5. Emmons, G.T "Native Accounts of the meeting
between La Perouse and the Tlingit," American Anthro-
pology. Vol. 13: 294-298, 1911. p.297.

6. Sound Heritage. Ibid., p. 60.

7. Beaglehole, Ibid., part II., p. 1,394.

8. La Perouse, Jean Francoise de Gallup, Comte de.
A Voyage round the World, performed in the years 1785,
1786, 1787 and 1788. Vol. I. A. Hamilton, London, 1799.
p. 370.

9. Beaglehole, Ibid., p. 1,088.
Ibid.

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

De Laguna, Ibid., Part II., p. 355.

Beaglehole, Ibid., p. 1,096.

Ibid., p.LlOO.

La Perouse, p. 398.

Sound Heritage, p. 58.

Beaglehole, p. 1,392.

Field Museum Store

GALLERY NINE

Primrose Adams
Larry Avakana
Steve Brown
Joe David
Robert Davidson
Dorothy Grant
Calvin Hunt
Henry Hunt
Tony Hunt
Tony Hunt, Jr
Nathan ]ackson
John Livingston

Melvin Olanna
Duane Pasco
Katie Pasco
Selina Peratrovich
Bill Reid
Cheryl Samuel
Jim Schoppert
Joe Senengetuck
Ron Senengetuck
Norman Tait
Art Thompson

Gallery Nine Hours: 1 1-5 or by special appointment.

Museum Store Remodeled

The Museum Store, newly remodeled, is again open. A new
section, featuring choice items related to special exhibitions,
currently features a wide vanety of merchandise from the
Arctic and the Pacific Northwest or related to the cultures
of those regions.

OUR ENVIRONMENT

Ten Years Later: Bird Populations
Rise as DDT Falls

Ten years after the official ban on the use
of DDT, the news from the wild is good:
Bald eagles, brown pelicans, and other
bird species once decimated by the pesti-
cide are repopulating former habitats as
chemical residues fade.

The pesticide was banned in 1972 in
the face of scientific evidence that it was
causing serious environmental problems,
including reproductive failure in suscepti-
ble bird species. For the past decade, hu-
man efforts have combined with natural
forces to restore species that experienced
sudden, sharp declines in the 1950s and
1960s. While specialists have teamed up to
put intensive recovery programs into ac-
tion, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service re-
searchers have completed studies that
have proven DDE, a breakdown product of
DDT, to be specifically responsible for egg-
shell thinning — the main reason some
birds could no longer reproduce. Service
scientists also learned which species were
sensitive to the pesticide, as well as which
ones suffered the heaviest exposures.

Scientists at the service's Patuxent
Wildlife Research Center near Washing-
ton, D.C. began to study the impact of DDT
on wildlife shortly after World War II. In
their investigations, service scientists
compared field observation with special-
ized laboratory research on surrogate spe-
cies. They verified that sensitive species
most seriously affected by ddt build-ups
were those which preyed on fish and oth-
er small animals that had been exposed to
DDT. Scientists learned that the higher a
species and its food source were on the
"food chain," the more severe the impact.

The bald eagle was highly vulnerable
since it fed heavily on fish in which DDT re-
sidues had accumulated. By the late 1960s
breeding populations had been practically
lost in the Great Lakes region and on the
East Coast, with just one known breeding
pair each in New Jersey and New York
State. Recently, however, bald eagles
have returned to nest in formerly contami-
nated wetlands. Florida's population,
which dropped 90 percent in the 1950s has
made a complete comeback, and the ea-
gle's return to such regions as the Great
Lakes may signal a turning point for
America's national symbol.

The peregrine falcon — an efficient
hunter which can strike its prey at 200
mph in mid-air — occupies a position in
the food chain similar to that of the bald
eagle and suffered a similar decline. By the
late 1960s there were no peregrines
known to nest east of the Mississippi Riv-
er, where several hundred pairs had exist-
ed formerly. Since there were no birds left
to repopulate former habitats, the falcon's
recovery has been aided in the last decade
by re-introduction of captive-reared birds
to promising areas, including cihes where
prey such as starlings and pigeons
abounds.

While bald eagles and peregrine fal-
cons were contaminated by DDT through
high concentrations in their diets, re-
search has shown that they are less than
half as sensitive to the pesticide as the en-
dangered brown pelican. Most pelican
populations on the Atlantic and Gulf
coasts were hard hit in the 1960s. In South
Carolina, for instance, there were about
6,000 breeding pairs before ddt washed
into Atlantic estuaries. In 1969 — a low
point for pelicans and other contaminated
species — only 1,100 to 1,200 pairs were left
and reproduction was nil. Now the peli-
cans number some 5,000 pairs, their rapid
comeback mostly due to their principal
food source, the menhaden fish, not hav-
ing retained much ddt residue. Service
scientists say that while pelican popula-
tions are not yet completely restored, their
reproductive rate in most of the U.S. has
returned to near normal.

The osprey (fish hawk) also staged a
rapid comeback after being nearly eradi-
cated in parts of the East. From New York
to Boston the osprey population fell from
1,000 to 100 breeding pairs in the 1960s.
But the species has been on the rise since
the mid-1970s, with normal reproduction.
Biologists hope ospreys will reach their
pre-DDT populaHon level by the end of the
century.

Scientists have not completely an-
swered why species with similar habitats
vary in their sensitivity to ddt. The black

duck, for instance, is more sensitive to ddt
than the mallard. Terns and skimmers that
shared coastal habitats and fish diets with
pelicans apparently were not affected by
the pesticide. Herring gulls consumed
heavy amounts with little adverse reac-
tion.

Although DDT has been banned in the
U.S. for a decade and residues in most
areas are slowly fading, some bird popula-
tions are still affected. In Los Angeles, for
instance, high residues in sediments that
are taking years to break down continue to
contaminate pelicans. Also, some West-
em migratory bird populations, including
peregrine falcons and black-crowned
night herons, are absorbing DDT in Latin
American countries where the pesticide is
still used.

The service's research with ddt and
other chemicals has demonstrated that
different species react very differently to
each compound and industrial chemical.
For example, evidence thus far indicates
that polychlorinated biphenyls (pcb's)
have little if any effect on reproduction in
some wild birds at levels normally found
in today's environment. In contrast, some
mammals are sensitive to minute amounts
of pcb's in their habitats.

California Condor Pair
Lays and Loses Egg

Condor Research Center biologists have
become the first persons ever to witness
the laying of a California condor egg and
its loss 12 days later over a cliff edge dur-
ing a complicated series of disputes be-
tween the pair members.

Remarkably, the female laid her egg
from a standing position. It fell from a
height of nearly a foot to the floor of a cliff
cave, apparently without suffering any
damage. Whether such egg laying is typi-
cal for the species is not known. ~^~

OUR ENVIRONMENT

According to Noel Snyder, the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service team leader at
the Condor Research Center in Ventura,
the biologist observed the event through a
telescope at a distance of one-third of a
mile in a mountainous region northwest
of Los Angeles. The egg was laid at exactly
2:06 p.m., February 14; the female began
incubating the egg just six minutes later.

Incubation proceeded smoothly, with
both birds taking several-day turns sitting
on the egg until February 24, when the fe-
male returned from foraging and her mate
refused to let her take over the incubation.
She attempted to get to the egg for two
days, only to be repeatedly rebuffed by

the male. Finally, on February 26, she
managed to work the egg out from under
her mate, but it rolled out of the nest cave
onto a ledge in the process. The birds at-
tempted to roll the egg back into the cave
but were unable to get it up the incline. Ul-
hmately, the egg rolled off the cliff during
further disputes over which bird would sit
on it.

Only about 30 California condors re-
main in the wild, all in southern Califor-
nia. "With so few birds left," Snyder said,
"the success of every nesting attempt is
important and every loss is a great disap-
pointment." He added that there is still a
"reasonably good chance" the pair may
lay a second egg, since they lost the first
one so early in the breeding season. In
fact, the pair was seen courting and check-
ing nestholes again within two days of los-
ing the egg. Normally, California condors

lay only one egg every two years, but they
have been known to re-lay within a year if
they lose an egg early.

The condor pair is believed to be the
same pair that successfully fledged a chick
two years ago from a nest cave close to the
one used this year. There were arguments
between the pair in 1980 as well, accord-
ing to Snyder, but the disputes did not
develop so early and caused no apparent
harm to the breeding effort.

Only four other active pairs of con-
dors have been located by the research
team. One of these produced a fledgling
last year and is not expected to breed this
year as they are still caring for this young-
ster. None of the other three pairs has laid
as yet, with two months to go in the egg-
laying season. The research team is keep-
ing track of all these pairs from a safe
distance.

Field Museum Tours for Members

Kenya

with optional extension to the Seychelles

September 11-October 1

price to be announced

There Is Now as there always has been, an aura or mystery
surrounding Africa — Tropical islands and the coast, endless
palm-fringed beaches, snow-capped mountains on the equator,
jungle primeval, sun-baked plains. They are all a part of East
Africa. The wildlife. . . the stately processions of elephant and
giraffe, prides of lion, the beautiful and rare leopard, the elegant
cheetah, the magnificent migration of the wildebeest and zebra.
Only here in East Africa is there still such diversity.

The itinerary includes a daytime stopover in London, over-
nights at the Nairobi Hilton, Mt. Lodge Tree Hotel, Samburu
Game Lodge, Mount Kenya Safari Club, Lake Hotel (at Lake
Naivasha), Governor's Camp (Masai Mara Game Reserve), and
other first class accommodations. An overnight stay in London
will conclude the trip. A three-day extension to the Seychelles
Islands is available as an ophon.

Tour lecturer will be Audrey Faden, a native Kenyan, who
formerly served as Officer in Charge of EducaHon at the National
Museum of Kenya, Nairobi.

Jcwellikt: Devil's Lake

For tour information, please write or call the Tours Office, 322-8862

Wisconsin's Baraboo Range

May 22-23
$125.00

Dr Edward Olsen, curator of mineralogy, will lead tour members
through the Baraboo Range and along the shores and hinterland
of beautiful Devil's Lake, 150 miles northwest of Chicago. The
Baraboo Range is of special interest as a monadnock — what is left
of an ancient mountain range and which now stands out above
the younger rocks and sediments. The range consists of quart-
zite — more than one billion years old — which, although com-
pressed in places into vertical folds, retains the original sedimen-
tary structures. The mountains were further modified by glaciers,
forming the lake and the picturesque glens, and changing the
course of rivers.

Overnight accommodations and meals will be at a nearby
motel. Hiking clothes are strongly recommended for the sched-
uled hikes. The trip is not suitable for children, but younger
people interested in natural history are welcome. For further
details please call or write the Tours office.

Beach scene, Seychelles

May & June at Field Museum

May 16 through June 15

New Exhibits

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest
Coast." Hall 10. This dramatic new, permanent
exhibit opened April 24. It is an innovative exhibit
which compares and contrasts the theatrically
ornate cultures from the North Pacific Coast with
the austere but individualistic Eskimo societies.
Situated along the coasts of the Northern Pacific
and Arctic oceans, these two distinct cultures
have adapted to difl^ering environments by using
similar techniques to harvest the riches of the
rivers and oceans.

Enter the Introductory Gallery (I) from Hall 3
on the northeast comer of Stanley Field Hall. Here
the lush forested Northern Pacific area is com-
pared to the barren tundra of the Arctic. The
Northwest Coast Indians and the Eskimos both
lived by hunting and fishing; they never depended
on agriculture. How they hunted, fished, and
gathered from the land and sea is explained in
Gallery II. Full-sized house replicas of each group
are featured in the Village and Society Gallery (III).
The Spiritual World Gallery (IV) defines the inter-
relationships of the human, animal, and Spiritual
world. In the final Gallery (V) the stunning art of
the Northwest Coast Natives and Eskimos is
dramatically presented. The towering totem poles
and tiny scrimshawlike engravings exemplify the
rich artistic heritage of these groups.

Here is an exhibit you'll enjoy at a leisurely
pace, but will want to return to again and again.

• Gallery Nine. Special exhibit area in Hall 9. An
art gallery for viewing and purchasing. One may
select from the work of more than 20 of the finest
contemporary Northwest Coast and Eskimo art-
ists. From April 24 to May 25.

• Museum Store. Look for the newly remodeled
Museum gift and book shop facilities when vis-
iting the Maritime Peoples exhibit.

• Totem Pole. Field Museum's first outdoor arti-
fact, a 55-foot totem pole was raised to herald
the April 24 opening of "Maritime Peoples of the
Arctic and Northwest Coast."

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic

and Northwest Coast"

Special Programs

Northwest Coast Lecture Series. "Strategies of
Society: Social Organization." The second lecture

series concentrates on the social structures of
Northwest Coast tribes and how their art is inte-
grated into those societies. You may attend the
whole series or any individual lecture. Each lec-
ture is given by a leading authority on native cul-
tures of the Northwest. Entrance for these 8 p.m.
lectures is through the West door. The series is $9
for Members and $12 for nonmembers. Single lec-
ture is $3; $4 for nonmembers.
n May 14 "Kwakiutl Winter Ceremonies," by

Peter Macnair, curator of anthropol-
ogy, British Columbia Provincial Mu-
seum, Victoria, British Columbia.
D May 21 "THngit Property Law," by RositaWorl,
Department of Anthropology, Uni-
versity of Alaska, Anchorage, Alaska.
n May 28 "Heraldic Symbolism," by Joan

Vastokas, Department of Anthropol-
ogy, Ti'ent University, Petersborough,
Ontario.
n June 4 "Historical Perspectives: Form and
Ti^adition in Regional Art," by Bill
Holm, curator of Northwest Coast
art, Burke Museum, University of
Washington, Seattle, Washington.

The Gie Sun Dancers. Tlingit Indians Irom Juneau,
Alaska, will perform in Stanley Field Hall. Each
Tlingit dance and its song is considered a family
property to be performed on public occasions
with the proper costumes and carvings. May 22
and 23 at 1 and 3 p.m.

Craft Demonstrations. The Tlingit and Haida
craftspeople, who are active in the revitalization
of Northwest Coast art forms, demonstrate their
skills. They use such regional materials as wood,
bone, argillite (a slate-like stone), grasses, and
wool. The three renowned Haida basket weavers
who will show basketry techniques are: Primrose
Adams, Selina Peratrovich and Delores Churchill.
May 22 and 23 at 11 a.m. and 2 p.m.

Northwest Coast Film Series: "People of the Tide
and Tlindra." A film series for deepening museum-
goers' appreciation of the new permanent exhibit,
"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest
Coast." Free vvdth Museum admission. Saturdays

Continued on back cover

EDITH FLEMING

94 6 PLEASAMT

OAK PARK ILL 60302

May & June at Field Museum

Continued from

and Sundays in May, 1:30 p.m. in Lecture Hall L

May 15, 16 Eskimo Artist: Kenojuak. The life and
work of an Eskimo woman artist.
The Legend of the Magic Knives. A
Kwakiutl legend is told through
totem pole carvings.

May 22, 23 Wooden Box Made by Steaming and
Bending. The traditional methods of
making cedar boxes is shown.
Nathan Jackson: Tlingit Artist. A con-
temporary artist shares his insight
into the nature of Tlingit art.

May 29, 30 People of the Seal: Eskimo Summer.
The summertime activities of Netsilik
Eskimos is portrayed.
The Crooked Beak of Heaven. A pot-
latch and other traditional ceremo-
nies of Northwest Coast Indians are
documented.

New Programs

Kites on the Wing. A Weekend Family Program.
Make your own kite in the shape of a bird and
fly it (weather permitting) . Members of the Chicago-
land Skyliners, a kite-flying club, will be on hand to
assist. Compare the behavior and habitats of dif-
ferent birds and view the special display of kites.
Bring your own #20 brown paper bag and at
least 50 feet of kite string. May 16 from 1 to 3 p.m.

International Museum Day screening of the film
"Museum" offers an inside look at how a museum
functions and who the people are who work in
them. May 16 at 1 p.m. and at 3 p.m. Free with
Museum admission.

Gamelan Concert. The Gamelan Repertoire
Ensemble, now in its fifth year of performing, and
the three-year-old Gamelan Performance Ensem-
ble will both play during this concert in James
Simpson Theatre. June 13 at 2 p.m.

Weekend Discovery Programs. Tours, craft projects,
slide presentations, and films which use Field

inside back cover

Museum exhibits as a springboard for new in-
sights into natural history projects are featured
on Saturdays and Sundays. Check Weekend Sheet
available at Museum entrances for added
programs.

May 15, 3 p.m. "Life in Ancient Egypt," tour.

May 16, 1:30 p.m. "Hitankhamun: Discovery and

TY^asures of the Tomb," slide

program.
May 23, 1:30 p.m. "Tibetan Life and Religion,"

slide program.
May 29, 2 p.m. "Chinese Ceramic Tl'aditions,"

tour.
June 5, 1:30 p.m. "Malvina Hoffman," slide

program.
June 6, 1:30 p.m. "Egypt in 1923: A Nile Journey,"

film.
June 12, 1 p.m. "Tibet Today," slide program.
June 12, 2 p.m. "Tibet," film.

The Nature Conservancy is a national conservation
organization committed to preserving natural
diversity by protecting lands with the best exam-
ples of all components of our natural world. Slide
lecture presents examples of preserves retained
by the Conservancy and managed by volunteer
land stewards. June 5 at 2 p.m.

Continuing Programs

Volunteer Opportunities. Individuals with scien-
tific interests and backgrounds are needed to
work in various Museum departments. Contact
the Volunteer Coordinator, 922-9410, ext. 360.

May AND June Hours. The Museum is open daily
9 a.m. to 6 p.m. except Fridays. On Fridays, the
Museum is open from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. throughout
the year.

The Museum Library is open weekdays 9 a.m. to
4 p.m. Closed Memorial Day, May 31. Obtain a pass
at the reception desk, main floor.

Museum Telephone: (312) 922-9410

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin

June 1982

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Kathryn Laughlin
Calendar: Mary Cassai
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

Board OF Trustees

James J. O'Connor

chainnati
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gorden Bent
Bowen Blair
Willard L. Boyd
Stanton R. Cook
O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Marshall Field
Richard M, Jones
Hugo). Melvoin
Charles F. Murphy, Jr.
Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
William L. Searle
Edward Byron Smith
Robert H.'Strotz
John W. Sullivan
William G. Swartchild, Jr.
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leiand Webber
Julian B. Wilkins
Blaine J. Yarrington

Life Trustees

Harry O. Bercher
Joseph N Field
Paul W.Goodrich
Clifford C'. Gregg
Sarauel InsuU, Jr.
WiJliam V Kahler
William H. MitcheU
JohnM. Simpson
J. Howard Wood

CONTENTS

June 1982

Volume 53, Number 6

Big Beaver Comes to Chicago

New Totem Pole Installed

Theatre Sans Fil

Giant Puppet Show Comes to Field Museum
June 26, 27

Field Briefs

Records from Stone

Mammoth Publication Project Completed
bv Alice K. Schneider

Probing the Roots of the Lincoln Park
Totem Pole

by Virginia A. Leslie

Field Museum's Tour to Australia

Reindeer Transport in Alaska

bv James W. VanStone

Curator of North American Archaeology

and Ethnology

Arctic Housing — Eskimo Style

bv Daniel J. Jovce, staff member of the Maritime
Peoples of the Northwest Coast Project

Field Museum's Tour to Kenya

Our Environment

28
32
33

June O'July at Field Museum

Calendar of Coming Events

Fieldiana: 1981 Titles

FRONT COVER

Detail of Big Beaver totem pole, installed in front of Field
Museum April 24, 1982. Shown here is head of grandson of
Beaver Chief; he holds beaver tail. Photo by Tom Hocker.

BACK COVER

Detail of Big Beaver totem pole: head of Beaver Chief Photo
bvRon Testa.

FMd Museum of Natural History BuUetin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combmed
July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Unve,
Chicago, D. 60605. Subscriptions: $6,00 annually $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bullelm subscription Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarUy reflect the policy of Field Museum Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Postmaster: Please send from 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second dass postage
paid at Chicago, II.

Big Beaver Conies to Field Museum

April 24, 1982, is a day to remember in the
history of Field Museum and of the City of
Chicago. For on that sunny, windswept Saturday,
the Big Beaver totem pole, the 55-foot creation of
Norman Tait, was raised and dedicated in front of
the Museum — the first artifact to be on permanent
exhibit outside the Museum in its 89-year history.

For the City of Chicago, the pole was now to
be counted among the city's great outdoor works of
art, taking its rightful place among a Picasso, a
Miro, a Calder, an Oldenburg, and a Chagall, among
others.

The pole was carved in Vancouver, B.C., by
Nishga artist Norman Tkit, of the Tbimshian group
of Northwest Coast Indians. Tait was commissioned
by the Museum to carve the pole for the celebration
of the opening of the new permanent exhibit, "Mari-
time Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast" in
Hall 10.

Tait began his task by going into the forest to
select the perfect tree. With the help of the British
Columbia Council of Forest Industries, a 65-foot
cedar tree was cut and transported to the ware-

house, where he and his apprentices set to work.
They began their carving after Tait retold the Beaver
Legend to the group of workers.

It is the story of how a family of Indians (Tait's
ancestors) came to learn of the beaver's wa)?s and
adopted the beaver figure as its clan symbol. To
the Northwest Coast Indian carver, the pole is the
medium for the telling of an age-old story — one
held dear to the family of the carver and only
allowed to be told by that family.

When totem poles were first observed by
European explorers they were thought to be objects
of worship. Further contact revealed that the poles
were simply a way to publicly tell a story and at the
same time bring honor and status to the owner of
the pole. In the complex societies of the Northwest
Coast, honor and status were as important as
material wealth.

Free-standing poles, like the one Tait has carved

Big Beaver totem pole, detail of human face. Photo by Tbm
Hacker.

Opposite: Detail of

pole shomng figures

of four brothers who

adopted the Big

Beaver storv. Photo

by Tom Hocker.

Top: Big Beaver

arrives in Chicago

April 9 via CPRail/Soo

Line at Edward Mines

Lumber Company.

Middle: In front of

Field Museum on

April 22; Museum

staff members shift

the pole so that

can'ers may complete

final details. Bottom:

April 23— staff

members carry the

pole into final position

before raising. Photos

bv Ron Testa.

for Field Museum, are outgrowths of carved house-
posts or support beams used inside Indian houses.
Woodcarvers without peer in the Americas, the
Northwest Coast Indians decorated these large
wooden beams with intricate designs, using a
unique tool, the hand adze, with precision and
delicacy.

The pole was raised at its lakefront setting in
the traditional manner, using six ropes to pull it
upright. Thousands assembled for the pole raising
ceremony and over 200 actually assisted in raising
it. Among those present was Her Honor Jane Byrne,
mayor of the City of Chicago.

Before the pole-raising, carver Norman Tait

delivered a brief address:

To the people of Chicago, and especially to Her
Honor Mayor Bvme, I would like to welcome you to
witness the birth of the Big Beaver. It has been in
labor pains for the last six months. Where we take
nine months, the totem pole takes six months, so I
would like to invite the people of Chicago to come
forward and help with the umbilical cord of this
great person, the Big Beaver. I'd like you to also wit-
ness the first time that the family of Rufus Watts will
have dahced and raised thepoleat thesame time in
about 80 years. This group is very new as compared
to the very rich peoples of the Northwest Coast. I
would like to thank you all for coming. Thank you.

Jm^f^' .b.-

The Big Beaver Legend

The "Big Beaver" pole which Norman Tait carved for Field
Museum depicts the figures involved in the Beaver legend
and part of his famil/s history. The story was told to him
by his maternal grandfather, Rufus Watts, and has been
passed on from generation to generation. It describes the
adoption of Beaver songs, dances, and images by the Eagle
tribe; it is part of the Nishga heritage and is seen as the
truth by the Nishga people.

The story is about a family of five brothers. They were
about to give a feast, and, to do so, had the responsibility
to earn a lot of money. In those days money was measured
in beaver pelts so the five brothers set off on a beaver hunt
in the lake areas where there were known to be many
beaver dams. The youngest brother was taken along to
look after the pelts once they had been skinned. He was to
count, record, and pack them.

Not long after they had set out, the brothers came
across a family of beavers and the hunt began. Soon they
had collected numerous pelts. In the process of the kill, the
beavers scattered in panic in an effort to escape. Although
many did not escape, two small beavers did manage to get
away from the hunters. The younger brother, sitting on
top of the hill, noticed these two small animals running
away. He felt sorry for the struggling beavers and went
down the hill to help them get away. He encouraged them
to keep on running and also gave them assistance in get-
ting over the larger dams that were in their paths. The
younger brother showed the little beavers great sympathy
and gentleness.

Eventually the two beavers disappeared into a bigger
pond at the other end of the creek which held a very large
beaver lodge. The younger brother noticed a smoke-hole
in the roof of the lodge, which was used to let out smoke
and let in light. He was puzzled. This was most unusual
for the beaver dams. The ones he knew did not have
smoke-holes. He peered down the smoke-hole just in time
to see the two small beavers undressing! They were taking
off their beaver clothing and the young man was surprised
to see that the two little beavers were actually human be-
ings. He continued to watch as they sat on the lap of the
Beaver Chief and told him all about the slaughter in which
their uncles and grandfathers were being killed at the
other end of the creek.

The great Beaver Chief, dressed in beaver clothes and
beaver headdress, began to sing the Mourning Song and
dance the Mourning Dance. He also sang a Cold Song
which called for a freeze over the lake to protect the re-
maining beavers that had managed to stay alive.

The younger brother heard the songs and saw the dance
and felt saddened by the extent of the hunt. He decided to
adopt the songs and the dance. As he watched he noticed a
large Totem Pole standing beside the Beaver Chief which
consisted of many carved beavers and was called the "Big
Beaver" pole. The young man decided to adopt this pole as
his family crest. He went back to his brothers to share his
discoveries. He showed them the dance that the beavers
had performed. He sang the Mourn/n^Son^ and the Cold
Song. The four brothers were also feeling remorseful that
they had killed so many beavers. To show their feelings
and in respect for the dead they decided to accept the
younger brother's suggestion and adopted the songs and
the dance of the beaver people. D

Above: Procession on

April 23, preceding

mming the pole.

Right: Norman Tait

addresses audience on

Museum 's north steps

on April 24 prior to

pole-raising. Chicago

Mavorjane Bxrne is

seated at left. Photos

bv Ron Testa.

Above: Rufus Watts
(left), the Elder, grand-
father of Norman
Tait, wears Eagle Clan
helmet. Norman Tait
(right) wears Beaver
Clan helmet. Left: The
pole is about to be
raised. Photos by Tom
Hocker (above) and
Ron Testa.

April 24, 1982:
"Big Beaver" is raised.
Photo by Tom Hocker.

PUPPETS EXTRAORDINAIRE:

Theatre Sans Kl

(The No Strings Puppet Theatre)

James Simpson Theatre

June 26, 27

2:00 p.m.

Members: $3.00; Nonmembers: $4.00

Adults and children alike marvel at the striking
visual and musical effects employed in the enactment
of these ancient tales, in which more than 40 enormous
pupf)ets appear. Reviewers have termed the production
"an absolutely elegant puppet show that brings a my-
thic exjjerience to Ufe in rapturous detail? The program,
a Learning Museum event, is made possible by a grant
from the National Endowment for the Humanities.

The only Canadian company to work with giant
pupjjets, the Theatre Sans FU has develojied new tech-
niques for their fabrication and manipulation. The
Theatre Sans Fils was founded in 1971 and now has
nine productions to its credit. The company's reputation
has groivn steadily over the years and it was chosen to
represent Canada at the International Puppet Festival
in Washington, D.C. in 1980.

For ticket information, please call (312) 322-8854.
Tickets will also be available at the West Door box
office one hour before curtain time. '

FIELD BRIEFS

Philippine Exhibit Opens July 17

The largest special exhibit of traditional
Filipino art to be held anywhere since
1905, "The People and Art of the Philip-
pines'/ will be on view in Hall 26 from July
17 through December 31. (Members' pre-
view Friday, July 16, 1 to 9 p.m.)

The exhibit includes loans from 16 mu-
seums and 14 private collections in the
U.S., Europe, and the Philippines. The
400 objects in the show are selected to give
a comprehensive view of the culture of
this former Spanish and then American
colony, now a major Southeast Asian
nation. Special emphasis is given to the
ceramics and gold of the prehistoric peri-
od, the Catholic arts of Spanish colonial
times, the noted wood sculpture of the
northern Philippines, and the extraordi-
nary but almost unknown textiles of the
southern Philippines.

"A Philippine Afternoon" will be held
on Sunday, July 18, from 1 to 4 p.m., offer-
ing a variety of programs in connection
with the new exhibit. There will be music,
dance, and craft demonstrations. Indige-
nous PhUippine dishes, reflecting the
impact of Indonesian, Asian, and Spanish
cultures may be sampled.

Commitment to Distinction Program

Field Museum's Corporate and Founda-
tion Division Commitment to Distinction
Program for 1982 and 1983 is under way.
This program seeks financial support from
the corporate and foundation community,
and involves leading corporation execu-
tives in development efforts on behalf of
Field Museum.

George R. Baker, executive vice presi-
dent. Continental Illinois Corporation and
Field Museum trustee, chairs the 1982-83
committee involving 10 section chairmen
and more than 50 committeemen. Recent-
ly, section chairmen gathered at the Muse-
um for an orientation meeting. This
meeting provided valuable insights con-
cerning the activities being conducted in
the Museum's areas of scientific research,
exhibition, and education.

Section chairmen for the 1982-83 pro-
gram include: Daniel Calibraro, vice presi-
dent. Corporate Communications, WGN
Continental Broadcasting; Wade Fetzer,
vice president. Investment Banking Ser-
vices, Goldman, Sachs and Company;
Thomas Hague, assistant to the chairman,
Borg-Wamer Corporation; Robert Jagel,

vice president. Planning and Administra-
tion, Amoco Chemical Corporation; John
Jones, senior vice president and treasurer,
Chicago Bridge and Iron Company;
Adrian Kruse, partner in banking, Ernst
& Whinney; Donald Petkus, vice presi-
dent. Commonwealth Edison Company;
Stephen White, senior vice president,
banking. Northern Trust Company; W.
Denis Wright, senior vice president.
Continental Illinois National Bank and Jay
D. Proops, vice president and treasurer,
Esmark, Inc.

Past support for Field Museum by the
corporate and foundation community has
been very generous and with the out-
standing committee of corporate leaders
currently lending their assistance. Field
Museum's 1982-83 Corporate and Foun-
dation Division will achieve the continued
and increased support of the business
sector.

Advisory Committee Named to
Museum's Planned Giving Program

An Advisory Committee to the Museum's
Planned Giving Program has been named,
and recently held its initial, orientation

Members' Nights October 7, 8

The special evenings that all Members
have been waiting for — Members' Nights
— will take place this year on Thursday,
October 7, and Friday, October 8, from 6 to
10 p.m. As in the past, the festive two-
night open house will feature behind-the-
scenes visits for all Members to curatorial
areas, laboratories, preparators' work-
shops, and other facilities that are not
ordinarily accessible to the public. Cura-
tors and other staff will be on hand to dis-
cuss their research and the collections
with visitors. Live music will be featured
in Stanley Field Hall and, of course, re-
freshments wi]\ be served.

New Hours Schedule

As of May 1, a new schedule of visiting
hours to Field Museum went into effect.
The new daily hours are 9:00 a.m. to 5:00
p.m., year-round. The day of the week
during which no admission fee is required
of nonmembers has been changed to
Thursday (from Friday). In addition to
these changes, the Museum will in the
future be closed on Thanksgiving Day
(beginning this year), as well as on
10 Christmas and New Year's Day.

Fossil Loan to Smithsonian. Fossils of six South American vertebrates and one cast were recently
loaned to the United States National Museum (part of the Smithsonian Institution) for a special
exhibit being mounted there. Jessica Harrison (right), research associate, and Dan Chaney (left),
preparator, both of the Department of Paleobiology, USNM, are shown in Field Museum's fossil
preparator's lab with some of the specimens to be loaned. With them are Field Museum's Larry Mar-
shall (2nd from left), assistant curator of fossil mammals, and William F. Simpson, Field Museum's
preparator of fossil vertebrates. Dr. Harrison stands by the carapace of a glyptodont; to the left is a
mastodont skull; the large skeleton on the table is that of a giant ground sloth. Behind Harrison's
hand is a cast of the smaller skull of a scxalled "terror bird," or Andalgalomis.

meeting. The committee will advise staff,
participate in clinics and seminars, and
generally make known the Museum's
programs to professional associates and
to others.

The committeemen, who will serve
two-year terms, will work with two trus-
tees of the Museum. William R. Dickin-
son, Jr., of Wilson & Mcllvain, serves as
chairman, and Hugo J. Melvoin, C.P.,
serves as vice-chairman.

The committeemen are: John P. Crilly,
vice president and division head. Personal
Banking and Trust, First National Bank of
Chicago; Millard J. Grauer, CLU, Owens,
Grauer, Dotterer and Dewyer; Addis E.
Hull III, partner, Jenner & Block, and
head. Estate Planning and Probate Divi-
sion; Samuel W. Hunt, senior vice presi-
dent and head. Trust Personal Services,
Continental Illinois National Bank & Trust
Company; Thomas F. Jones, Jr., senior
vice president. Personal Trust Group,
Harris Trust & Savings; Reinald McCrum,
vice president. Trust Personal Financial
Planning, the Northern Trust Bank; and
Martin H. Rosenberg, executive director,
Illinois CPA Society.

Women's Board presidents, past and present. ShownattheMay 5, 1982, Women's Board An-
nual Meeting are (L. to r.) Mrs. T. Stanton Armour (newly elected president), Mrs. Robert Wells
Carton (president 1980-82), Mrs. Edward F. Swift (1978-80), Mrs. O. Macrae Patterson (1974-76),
Mrs. B. Edward Bensinger (1972-74), and Mrs. Edward Byron Smith (1970-72). Not shown is Mrs.
Joseph E. Rich (1976-78). The Women's Board was founded by the late Mrs. Hermon Dunlap Smith,
who served as first president, 1966-70.

New Women's Board Officers

The new president of Field Museum's
Women's Board is Mrs. T. Stanton
Armour, elected at the board's annual
meeting. May 5. Mrs. Armour succeeds
Mrs. Robert Wells Carton, elected in 1980.
Other new officers elected at the meeting
were Mrs. John W. Madigan, vice presi-
dent; Mrs. Evan G. Moore, vice president;
Mrs. George Barr McCutcheon II, record-
ing secretary; Mrs. Philip D. Block III, cor-
responding secretary; Mrs. Angelo R.
Arena, board member-at-large; and Mrs.
Hammond E. Chaffetz, board member-
at-large.

Continuing in their respective offices
are Mrs. John C. Meeker, vice president;
Mrs. Newton N. Minow, treasurer; and
Mrs. Ben W. Heineman, board member-
at-large.

Public Relations Manager Honored

Mary A. Cassai, Field Museum's public
relations manager, has received a 1982
Merit Award from the Publicity Club of
Chicago for individual management of a
publicity campaign in the "Institutional
Programs" classification. The award was
given for the planning and coordination of
a print-television-radio program on Field
Museum produced by the advertising firm
of D' Arcy-MacManus & Masius, Inc.

The award is given to the top ten per-
cent of advertising and public relations
professionals in the Midwest. Last year
Cassai was also honored by the Publicity
Club of Chicago for outstanding promo-
tion of the "Great Bronze Age of China"
exhibit.

Mr. Hisazo Nagatani, center, is presented a certificate by Field Museum President Willard L.
Boyd at a dinner in Nagatani's honor, March 30. The certificate named Nagatani, donor of many
fine works of Chinese and Japanese art, as a benefactor of the Museum. Seated at right is Dr. Lau-
rence Sickman, distinguished sinologist and former director of the Nelson Gallery, Kansas City, Mo.

IMPIRIAL ROIES

"Azure Dragon," from
stone coffin of Wang
Hui, Szechuan, Han

dynasty, 56 x 122 cm,
#233583.

Records from Stone

faj Alice K. Schneider
Associate, Department of Anthropology

The first time I exchanged appreciations with
an elderly Chinese scholar on his country's art,
he inquired, "Are you familiar with Chinese
robins?"

I gazed at his open, smiling face for clues to
his meaning, but could only lamely reply, "No,
I didn't know there was a separate species."

Last summer I was to give a slide-show talk
on Chinese rubbings, a subject I had been closely
involved with for more than 15 years — ever
since the "robins" were straightened out. The
talk was to be for a senior citizens' study group,
and on the morning of the presentation I over-
heard a lady tell her husband that she wouldn't
be able to join him for their customary afternoon
stroll because she planned to attend a session
on "Chinese massage."

So what are these elusive objects, these
Chinese rubbings? They are simply prints, mis-
named "rubbings" because in English we do
not have a close equivalent for that art form:
impressions made by tamping indelible ink on
mulberry paper that has been placed over an
incised surface, usually stone or wood. This is
called the "wet" method, as distinguished from
the "dry."

In the latter, paper is truly rubbed with
charcoal or crayon. Because dry, or "English
rubbings" (so-called because most were made
from inscribed tablets in English churches), are

more familiar to us, we borrow the term "rub-
bings." The wet technique far outlasts the dry (I
have seen a rubbing fragment from the seventh
century). But for some reason, the wet method
continues to be used almost exclusively in the
Orient, notably in China and Korea.

Still less familiar to the western world are
the engraved stones themselves and what they
represent: more than 2,000 years of cultural
history. They include not only important com-
memorations comparable to those found in the
ruins of other ancient civilizations, but a variety
of documents as well as religious works. This
information is rarely found in books published
in the West on China, possibly because there
has never been a comprehensive study of this
remarkable phenomenon in either East or West.
But 80 years ago the exciting potential of this
material came to the attention of a young sinol-
ogist, Berthold Laufer.

In 1901, Laufer, a recent emigrant from
Cologne to the United States, was sent to China
to obtain artifacts for New York's American

Catalogue of Chinese Rubbings from Field Museum
(1981), 746 pp., was researched by Hoshein Tchen and
Kenneth M. Starr, prepared by Alice K. Schneider,
photographed by Herta Newton and Field Museum
Division of Photography, and edited by Hartmut Wal-
ravens. Fieldiana Anthropology New Series Number
3; $67.50.

Museum. While there, he was advised by
Chinese scholars that for research purposes he
must have rubbings made from the engraved
stones which were to be found in temples, im-
perial buildings, and their courtyards. The easily
transportable rubbings would provide an inex-
pensive permanent library of research tools
from original sources that he could always use
in the convenience of his own study.

Ultimately, Laufer acquired some 4,000
rubbings in China, shipping them back to the
American Museum for safekeeping. In time, the
collection was to be one of the largest and most
comprehensive in the world. But for many years,
because of Laufer's involvement in so many
other research activities, he had little opportu-
nity to use these rubbings. In 1907, Laufer joined
the curatorial staff of Field Museum, and in
1923, upon his request, the American Museum
presented the entire collection to him.

In 1929 Laufer sought funds to finally re-
search and catalog the collection. He proposed
the establishment of an "Oriental Research

Institute" in Washington, D.C., which would
underwrite his "project of a corpus inscriptio-
num Sinicarum," as he called it. Over a period
of 15 years, the rubbings were to be cataloged
into 15 volumes. The projected cost: $150,000.
But in October, 1929, the American economy
collapsed, and the ambitious project never ma-
terialized. A catalog of only the non-Chinese
portion of the collection was published in his
lifetime. Laufer died in 1936, leaving a body of
published and unpublished work that was as
remarkable for its intellectual amplitude as for
its size. Included in his will was a bequest to the
Field Museum of his entire library of rubbings.

It was fitting that the cataloging of the rub-
bings collection was finalized by another scholar
equally dedicated to achieving a bridge between
the cultures of the East and West: Dr Hoshien
Tchen, a refugee from China who came to Field
Museum in 1954; he remained until 1973, serving
as consultant for the East Asian collection.

A collector of Chinese art as well as former
legal adviser to the Palace collection in Peking,

^i. f

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"Prancing Deer/Horse
and Rider" tomb brick
relief from Szechuan,
mid-2nd century; 43 x
44 cm: #233533. 13

"Landscape, Pine Tree, Cranes," from Confucius Temple,
Hsi-an; 189 x 79 cm, #244810.

Tchen was curious to view the Field Museum's
holdings in Chinese art and artifacts. What was
not then known, not even to Dr. Kenneth Starr,
the East Asia curator, was the importance of the
contents of some 30 boxes from the American
Museum that had remained in storage for more
than a quarter century. Dr. Tchen has spoken
often of opening these boxes as "a tremendous,
exciting discovery," describing their contents as
"the best part of the Chinese collection."

In 1961 Starr and Tchen began to curate the
rubbings collection, Tchen doing the research,
largely with the aid of Chinese sources, and
Starr doing the editing — a responsibility I grad-
ually took over after coming to the Museum
as a volunteer in 1965.

Cataloging collections is a large part of mu-
seum work. Usually it involves identification of
the specimen, determination of its age and pro-
venience, when and where it was obtained by
the Museum (not always identical with pro-
venience), physical characteristics, by whom it
was made, etc. A photo, ideally, rounds out the
catalog entry — all of this posted on a 3 x 5 index
card for the curator's file and duplicated in a set
of ledgers, kept in the department office. Today,
in Field Museum's Department of Anthropology,
most of this information has been stored in a
Computer as well. (See "Cannibals, Catalogs and
Computers," September 1977 Bulletin, p. 10.) In
the late 1950s, Starr designed an 8 x 11-inch card
that would accommodate more information
about the rubbing or engraving it documented.

Fortunately, for those of us interested in
Chinese antiquities, cataloging in that country
is an ancient, highly respected tradition, and
among the Chinese literati there is also a cher-
ished tradition of collecting objects of historic or
aesthetic value. So in addition to information
available in public archives, were those orderly
notebooks kept by private collectors; some col-
lectors even published memoranda on their art
works or antiquities. And then there were the
ti-pos — colophons written on the mountings of
valuable rubbings, sometimes even engraved
into the stones.

However, from the mid-Ming dynasty
{ca. 1500) on, the Chinese did not consider their
contemporary engravings important enough to
record. By then, many engravings were recuts,
copies of older stones which time had worn
away or which had entirely disappeared, leaving
only rubbings to trace from. Therefore, for those
rubbings not described in any publication, Tchen
had to glean his data from the rubbings them-
selves— no simple task. This required the ability
to read classical Chinese (a skill roughly com-
parable to that of a present-day Englishman
reading Chaucer), for many inscriptions were

written in this antique style. It also required a
familiarity with the Chinese classics and their
writers, with collections of rubbings and their
collectors, artists, calligraphy and writing styles
of various periods, and an eye for recognizing a
recut stone. Few young people in China today
can do any of this.

This ability to distinguish between originals
and recuts was perhaps the most recondite of
the skills involved. Recuts were made at least as
early as the Sung dynasty (960-1279), and in
some instances there were even forgeries of
famous calligraphers. A recut was made from a
fresh stone slab on which a rubbing of the origi-
nal stone had been imposed as a pattern. Recut
engravings, therefore, contained all the original
information, including dates, signatures, and
even seals of the original. Recut stones were
also made from copies of earlier copies of pos-
sibly a freehand copy of an original painting.

The condition of a rubbing is not necessarily
an indication of its age; the condition depends
on how well the paper has been preserved. I
have seen beautiful rubbings from the Sung
dynasty which had been carefully preserved in
private collections; I have also seen twentieth-
century rubbings that were already victims of
neglect.

Laufer's meticulous field notes were of
particular help to Tchen — except for his data on
proveniences. For the last millennium, inscribed
stones of historic significance had been removed
from their outdoor settings to pagodas, temples,
and other structures that offered some protection
from the elements; but in being moved, infor-
mation about the original site was not always
recorded. For this reason, the provenience given
for a large number of rubbings in our collection
may be a particular temple, though that temple
was in fact merely a repository.

An early catalog, based upon Laufer's field
notes, had been prepared by C. Y. Hu and Rose
G. Miller, who worked at Field Museum between
1939 and 1944. In his research, Tchen frequently
referred to the Hu-Miller catalog; but mistakes
and omissions had to be corrected. And Hu-
Miller covered only the acquisitions made by
Laufer, not later additions to the collection.

Rubbings acquired from other people, such
as some 300 fascinahng prints made from Han
(206 B.C. -AD. 220) tomb tiles and stones in Sze-
chuan by D.C. Graham in the 1930s, required
sources of information other than Hu-Miller.
These various sources were not always in
agreement. In contrast, a well known private
collection of old rubbings mounted in book
form and purchased by the Museum in the 1960s
was thoroughly documented. Tchen often
referred to our work as "very delicate" because

it was so easy for errors to be committed.

In early 1972 it looked as though we were
actually going to finish researching this vast
collechon. Our completed 8 x 11 catalog cards
could have made a stack nine feet high. The
rubbings — some as large as 4 x 7 feet — were
all returned to their enormous storage cabinets.
One final question remained: What was to
happen now?

Was all this work to remain buried in stor-
age, the final resting place of so much research,
or should it be made available to scholars hungry
for research tools? Few scholars knew of this
collection, even fewer that information about
each item in the collection was now readily
accessible. A modest catalog list would do; but
how does such a list reach its intended readers?
Dr. James VanStone, editor of Fieldiana, the Mu-
seum's continuing monograph series, proposed
that a comprehensive compendium be prepared.
I blithely agreed to spend one more year on this
work. It was to take nine.

Approval for publication in Fieldiana was
dependent upon several conditions: first, con-
firmation by a recognized scholar in at least a
closely related field that the results of our
research were worth publication. This posed
something of a problem since there was no
authority in this country on Chinese rubbings.
Funding for the project was also required. In
addition, compiling a book required an editor
with a thorough knowledge of Chinese. Dr.
Tchen would no longer be available. Reaching
the respectable age of 80, he was to retire in
1973.

Fortunately, none of these problems proved
insurmountable. Professor T. H. Tsien, director
of the University of Chicago's East Asian Library,
and an eminent authority on the development
of writing in China, heartily approved the idea

Catalogue of
Chinese Rubbings
from Field Museum

of the proposed work. He based his endorse-
ment on recognition of the importance of the
collection and on his respect for the scholarship
of Dr. Tchen. Funding for the project was ob-
tained from the National Endowment for the
Arts. And from Laufer's home town of Cologne,
in 1974, came another young graduate in Chinese
studies and one of the world's three experts in
the Manchu language. Dr. Hartmut Walravens.
He had come to examine manuscripts of Laufer's
for a bibliography he was preparing, and he
remained, in his words, "to act as midwife" for
the rubbings collection catalog.

Walraven's contributions went far beyond
the duties of editing. He compiled an extremely
useful bibliography from Tchen's sources — a
task that would have been an impossibility for
me, since most of these sources were in Chinese.
He did further research in areas of his expertise
such as Manchu, Mongolian, and on rubbbings
from two Christian cemeteries in China, which
were of particular interest to him. He also helped
to design and execute the extremely complicated
indices and other sections of the book. He did
the editing in Cologne and later Hamburg, over
a period of years, for it had been agreed that we
would work by mail. I was to send him dupli-
cates of manuscript copy in installments of about
100 sheets each to minimize difficulties in the
event of loss. And indeed one packet was lost
with neither of us being aw^re of it at the time.
The Post Office had placed its stamp over

my envelope number. By the time we realized
that a packet was missing, a complete numerical
order of catalog entries had been worked out.
As a consequence of the loss the numbering
had to be redone — a task of several months.
This was just the beginning of many problems
exacerbated by thousands of miles between us.
Because of a long delay in receiving an antici-
pated introduction, both of us — independent of
the other — solicited another. After four years
we had three!

A specialist in Arabic was needed. Wal-
ravens found one in Germany; 1 found one here.
And the opinions of the two on certain texts
differed. Duplicates of file cards, prepared
because there were duplicate rubbings in the
collection, were endlessly turning up; so the
duplicate entries they generated in the book
had to be weeded out. Even some new rubbings
materialized, overlooked by Tchen and myself
in our research. And finally, two boxes of rub-
bings sent to us by the American Museum in
1970 turned out to be ours; they, too, had to be
included. Unaccountably, these Laufer rubbings
had remained at the American Museum all these
years. The appendices grew.

It was at this point that reconstruction of
rooms in the Department of Anthropology
began. The incessant drilling of pneumatic
hammers and flying dust made work there so
difficult that I bought an electric typewriter
and continued the project at home.

One of 16 illustrations
of steps in processing

cotton, from stone sl(W

in the Imperial Palace,
Peking: 1765 or later;

26x26 cm, #118293.

16 (Cropped at top)

In May, 1977, five years later, the finished
manuscript was submitted to the Fieldiana editor
for final processing before being typeset. What
had we accomplished? A behemoth catalog of
2,014 printed rubbing entries with titles in
English and Chinese characters, plus translit-
erations. Some titles, where called for,
were done in transliterations of Manchu,
Mongolian, Tibetan, etc. Individual indices of
titles, personal names, temples, proveniences,
and so forth, as well as the usual subject index
ran to 148 printed pages. The indices alone had
involved three years of cross-checking, shaping,
and refining by several dedicated volunteers as
well as by Walravens and me. The illustrations
filled 137 full pages.

Again, a dedicated volunteer, Herta New-
ton, a former professional photographer, and I,
working three days a week at the Museum,
"finished" the photography for the book in two
years. Not that the selection of photographs
was by any means then completed; it was most

difficult to represent pictorially a collection of
such enormous proportions and variety. In the
case of very large rubbings of calligraphy, only
details were photographed, because it would
have been impossible to see anything adequately
in a small photograph.

Still ahead were four years of editing and
proofreading by the Fieldiana editor and several
of us, paid and unpaid, associated with the
project.

Why do we do these things?

Fortunately, we cling to ideas, beliefs, and
morsels of encouragement. I had absorbed Dr.
Tchen's conviction that we were compiling the
first catalog of its kind anywhere in the world,
important not only because its subject was rub-
bings, but for its extraordinary breadth and
scope. The final product, I am satisfied, is a
valuable, unique research tool — "Project of a
Corpus Inscriptionum Sinicarum," even though
I had known nothing of Laufer's ambitious
attempt until after the book was finished. D

Map of China during
general Sung period
and places visited by
the legendary Emperor
Yii, from Confucius
Temple, Hsi-an, dated
1137: 79 X 78 cm:
#245523. This has
been described by schol-
ars as the most remark-
able cartographic work
of its age in any culture.

Probing the Roots of

The Lhteoln Park Totem Pole

br Virginia A. Leslie

The City of Chicago can boast of two monu-
mental family trees: carved cedar totem
poles from the Pacific Northwest Coast. One
was acquired by the city more than half a century
ago; the other went on view outside Field
Museum on April 24 of this year.

The former is a 40-foot pole located in
Lincoln Park at Lake Shore Drive and Addison
Street. It was given to the Chicago Park District
in 1929 by James L. Kraft, founder of Kraft Foods,
Inc. (now Kraft, Inc.), and dedicated to the
schoolchildren of Chicago. It is the remarkable
story of the Lincoln Park pole that concerns us.

Mr. Kraft, an accomplished lapidary and
collector of jade, made trips to Alaska and the
Pacific Northwest in his search for jade and
other rare minerals; while on these trips the
unique art and culture of the Northwest Coast
Indians attracted him. In 1926, after several

Lincoln Park totem pole

as it apyeared at Alert

Bay, B.C., about 1910.

Courtesy American

Museum of Natural

18 History.

years' negotiation, he purchased through inter-
mediaries two totem poles (including that in
Lincoln Park) and a 15-foot-long feast dish; the
three huge carvings were shipped to Chicago
from British Columbia on railroad flatcars.

In 1927 the feast dish was given to the Wis-
consin State Historical Society, in Madison, and
in 1952 the society loaned the dish to the Thomas
Burke Memorial Washington State Museum at
the University of Washington in Seattle, where
it remains on exhibit.

One of the totem poles now stands on pri-
vate property, "Kraftwood Gardens," of the
Kraft family in northeastern Wisconsin. The
other pole lay on the Chicago River dock of a
Kraft plant for three years. Finally, in 1929, James
Kraft gave the pole to the City of Chicago. It
was erected in Lincoln Park and officially dedi-
cated in June of that year.

Preparations at Field Museum for the new
maritime peoples exhibit in Hall 10 (which fea-
tures 24 totem poles) stimulated renewed inter-
est in the Lincoln Park pole. Dr. Ronald L. Weber,
visiting assistant curator for the Northwest Coast
Project, was skeptical of information on the
pole's bronze plaque, which attributes the pole
to the Haida of the Queen Charlotte Islands,
British Columbia. For a number of reasons,
including stylistic features and motifs in the
pole's design, he concluded that it was actually
the work of the Kwakiutl of Vancouver Island,
rather than of the Haida. His doubts led to my
investigations.

Kwakiutl poles are often dramatic and col-
orful, as is the Lincoln Park pole. Kwakiutl pole
figures are frequently painted in several colors,
notably white and green, and the proportion of
head to body of carved figures is relatively real-
istic; thunderbirds and eagles are embellished
with outstretched wings and other appendages
for heightened effect. Haida poles are greater in
diameter than the Kwakiutl. Carving is deep in
Haida poles, but the cylindrical form of the log
is retained; large and small creatures are inter-
twined, prominent heads are half the full length
of figures, and detail work in Haida poles is

Virginia A. Leslie was a volunteer for the Northwest Coast
Project.

more apt to be carved than painted; red and
black are used, but sparingly.

Several Northwest Coast symbols are miss-
ing from the Lincoln Park pole or are incorrectly
placed. Plumes characteristically found on the
thunderbird's head are missing, but those of a
seesioohl (mythological serpent) are between
the whale's tail and the thunderbird's claws; the
whale has large, outspread wings, though
winged whales are not to be found on any other
known Northwest Coast pole or even in the
mythology of the region.

The probable explanation for these oddities
is that before the two poles were shipped to
Chicago, the wings and plumes were detached
to prevent damage. When reassembled, the
thunderbird's wings were correctly attached to
the Lincoln Park pole, but both the thunderbird's
wings and the seesioohl plumes of the Wisconsin
pole were reattached by mistake to the Lincoln
Park pole. A rudimentary set of wings unlike
any to be found on Northwest Coast poles were
added to the Wisconsin pole; apparently these
were carved in Wisconsin.

Close inspection of photos taken at Alert
Bay between 1903 and 1910 leaves no doubt that
the two poles once stood in that village and are
of Kwakiutl, not Haida, origin. There are also
paintings by well known Canadian artist Emily
Carr of these poles as they stood at Alert Bay

in 1912. According to information in the Kraft
archives, the two poles are so old that no one
knows when they were carved, but Alert Bay
was settled in the 1870s, and 1898 photos of the
village fail to show them.

Further evidence that the Lincoln Park pole
is Kwakiutl rather than Haida is to be found in
records about the pole held by Kraft: "It was
not carved by human hands," says a recorded
legend, "but came floating down the Nimpkish
River in prehistoric times to the steelheaded
man, . . . founder of the tribe, as a symbol of pro-
tection from the Great Spirit." The Nimpkish
River flows into Johnstone Strait, across from
Alert Bay (home of the Kwakiutl). This is some
200 miles south of the Queen Charlotte Islands
(home of the Haida).

The bronze plaque in front of the Lincoln
Park pole names that pole "Kwa Ma Rolas,"
which, says Bill Holm (curator at Thomas Burke
Museum), is a corruption of "Gwa mo las," or
"K'wamaxalas" — the name of the Alert Bay
owner of the Wisconsin pole. Kraft's interme-
diaries, probably not well informed about North-
west Coast art, were apparently confused about
the poles' identities and legends. "The Kraft
version of the myths," says Holm, "includes
many correct names and recognizable snatches
of the stories, but it has all been garbled."

The pole that once stood before Chief

Lincoln Park totem pole
about 1967 (left) and
during 1929 dedication
ceremony (right). Note
differences, particular-
ly in painted design.
Photos courtesy
Kraft, Inc. 19

Waxawidi's house, in Alert Bay, is described by
Holm as having "a thunderbird at the top, next
a baleen whale (Gwa' yam) with a man on the
back and at the bottom a sea monster. The baleen
whale has a small dorsal fin, very long pectoral
fins, and a row of white spots on each side."
This description of the whale accurately de-
scribes that on the Lincoln Park pole. "By com-
parison, the killer whale on the Kraftwood
Gardens pole has a very long dorsal fin, short
wide pectoral fins, no spots, and a differently
shaped head." The idea of the Haida origin and
antiquity of the two poles, he concludes, "is
preposterous."

Gloria Cranmer Webster, curator of U'Mista
Cultural Society at Alert Bay and granddaughter
of Chief Gwa mo las, reports that in 1978 her
brother Doug Cranmer designed a new version
of the Gwa mo las pole in honor of their father.
The pole bears a striking resemblance to the
Kraftwood Gardens pole.

So we have every reason to believe that the
two poles (as well as the feast dish now in Seattle)
were carved by the Kwakiutl of Alert Bay in the
early 1900s. Perhaps the mistake of attribution

of these three pieces is partly because a number
of small Haida argillite (dark carbonaceous slate)
sculptures were also shipped in 1926 to Kraft
from the Queen Charlotte Islands.

Conservation of the Lincoln Park Pole

The victim of carpenter ants, vandals, and the
normal processes of weathering and decay, the
Lincoln Park pole has undergone more than a
dozen modifications since 1929. All of this res-
toration has been done under the direction of
Kraft, since it was arranged at the time of pre-
sentation that the company would continue to
assume the task of maintenance.

In 1958 the arm positions of the pole's hu-
man figure were changed because rotting had
occurred in the arm sockets; one hand was
moved so that it covered the figure's eyes. (A
visitor observed that the figure no longer had to
watch the spectacle of rush hour traffic which
passed before it.) In 1966 the pole was drastically
renovated: the sea monster at the base, the
thunderbird at the top, and the human figure

Bronze plaque at

Lincoln Park totem

pole. Corrected, it

should read:

"Waxawidi, historic

Kwakiutl Indian totem

pole from Alert Bay,

Vancouver Island,

B.C., carved from a

single red cedar The

figures from top to base

represent the Kulos,

member of the

thunderbird family, the

baleen whale with a

20 man on its back"

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The Kraftwood Gardens (Wisconsin) totem pole as it appeared in Alert Bay, B.C., about 1910 (left pole in left photo), and in
Kraftwood Gardens, about 1950. Left photo courtesy Vancouver Museums and Planetarium Association — the Vancouver
Museum; right photo courtesy Edith Dahlberg.

were recarved by skilled Kraft workers. Their
work appears to be a faithful attempt at restora-
tion, but the painted symbols were inaccurately
reproduced. The significance of features in the
original painting, which had been more elabo-
rate, could never have been appreciated by a
restorer unacquainted with Northwest Coast
art. A Kraft supervisor of the restoration has
suggested that Kraft workers trying to copy the
intricate symbols perhaps didn't realize how
important it was to duplicate features with great
accuracy. The original painted symbols on the
pole have almost totally disappeared.

Kraft has tried conscientiously to hold back
and to repair the onslaughts of time as well as

acts of vandalism against the pole. This historic
monument should be restored to its original
form by a skilled Kwakiutl craftsman. D

Of particular help to the author in researching this article were
Ronald L. Weber, visiting assistant curator in Anthropology,
Field Museum; Bill Holm, curator of Northwest Coast Indian
art at the Thomas Burke Memorial Washington State
Museum at the University of Washington in Seattle; Peter
Macnair, curator of anthropology at the British Columbia
Provincial Museum, Victoria, B.C.; Everett Kuhn, Sarah
M. Mauro, John X. Thomas, and Albert F. Schuber — all of
Kraft, Inc.; and Edith Dahlberg (daughter of James Kraft),
who loaned photographs and other material. Additional
information was found in the Chicago Historical Society
Library and in archives of the Chicago Park District.

Field Museum Tours for Members

Australia Tour

August 23-September 12
Tour Price: $4,998 (double occupancy)

A 40-minute flight on August 27 will take the group to Ade-
laide, followed by visits to local vineyards. A 90-minute flight that
evening will terminate at Alice Springs, the group's base of opera-
Hons for six days. Highlights here include sight-seeing into the
outback, bush barbecues, and a visit to spectacular Ayers Rock.

September 3 will be spent in and around Perth. Rides by

hydrofoil and river boat will be optional. September 4 will be spent
traveling by motorcoach to Augusta while viewing some of Aus-
tralia's most delightful scenery.

September 5: A trip to Walpole-Normalup National Park, see-
ing 200-foot-high stands of red tingle trees, September 6: Colorful
Albany, an old whaling port. September 7: A day trip to the Poron-
gorup and Stirling mountain ranges.

September 8: Return to Perth via the Albany Highway, with
views of the Darling Range. September 9: Perth, with time for
shopping and sight-seeing. September 10: In Sydney for a day of
leisure for shopping, sightseeing, or day tours.

September 11: Depart from Sydney for U.S. Having lost a day
by crossing the International Date Line, we overnight at San Fran-
cisco's Sheraton Airport Hotel.

September 12: Arrival in Chicago.

For additional information on this tour, please write or call
Dorothy Roder, Tours Manager, at Field Museum, 322-8862.

Reindeer Transport in Alaska

by James W. VanStone
Curator of North American Archaeology and Ethnology

In 1892 domestic reindeer were brought from
northeastern Siberia to the southern Seward
Peninsula region of western Alaska through the
joint efforts of the Reverend Sheldon Jackson,
Presbyterian missionary and first general agent
of education in Alaska, and Captain Michael A.
Healy of the U.S. Revenue Marine Service.

This relocation program, supported by the
U.S. Bureau of Education, was intended to pro-
vide Alaskan Eskimos with a new source of food
that would offset a recent decline in sea mam-
mals; during the second half of the nineteenth
century, commercial interests had indulged in
unrestricted killing of whales, walrus, and seals.
There also appeared to be a small market for the
meat and skins of the reindeer, and it was hoped
that Eskimos could derive a cash income from
their sale.

The first deer were landed by the U.S.
Revenue Cutter Bear in July 1982 on the north
shore of Port Clarence at a place that the Rever-
end Jackson had named the Teller Reindeer Sta-
tion (after John M. Teller, a United States senator
who had helped steer appropriations for the pro-
ject through Congress). Chukchi herders were
brought from Siberia to teach Eskimos the tech-

niques of herding and the proper methods of car-
ing for the animals. Between 1892 and 1902 more
than 1,200 reindeer were landed at Teller and, as
herders were trained, the deer were eventually
dispersed to Eskimo communities.

At the opening of the station. Miner W.
Bruce, a former Nebraska journalist, was ap-
pointed superintendent. He and one assistant
had charge of four Chukchi herders, an equal
number of Eskimo apprentices, and approxi-
mately 175 reindeer. Bruce served as superin-
tendent for only one year, then became a trader
to widely scattered areas of Alaska, where a size-
able portion of his business was the collecting of
Eskimo manufactures for resale. It was during
this period that he negotiated sales of important
collections of Eskimo material culture to Field
Columbian Museum (later named Field Museum
of Natural History); these were acquired by the
Museum in 1894 and 1896.

The Reverend Jackson, who traveled exten-
sively in Alaska every summer between 1886 and
1906, also obtained Eskimo artifacts, and his col-
lection of approximately 270 undocumented
specimens from western and northwestern Alas-
ka was acquired for the World's Columbian

Eskimo herders with
reindeer at Port
Clarence, Seward
Peninsula, Alaska.
Note small stature of
reindeer. N17013

The Reverend Sheldon

Jackson, Presbyterian

missionary who helped

introduce reindeer into

Alaska. NW8676

100km

-v ^«J^-°'-

Exposition and accessioned by Field Columbian
Museum in October 1893 (accession 126). This
collection contains a number of interesting speci-
mens associated with the reindeer project and
related to the use of these creatures as draft
animals.

Although the Chukchi herders who were
brought from Siberia proved to be unsatisfactory
and were soon replaced by Norwegian Lapland-
ers, the Siberians were responsible for the intro-
duction of certain items of material culture
associated with reindeer transport that had been
previously unknown in mainland Alaska. In
Alaska, dogs had been the only animals used by
Eskimos to pull sleds, and although the intro-
duced reindeer had originally been perceived as
a food source, it was only natural that the Chuk-
chi would stress the value of these animals for
transport, since this type of use was important to
them in their Siberian homeland.

The collection of Eskimo material culture
made by Jackson contains two Siberian-style
sleds, a reindeer collar, and three whips specif-
ically associated with reindeer transport. It is
possible that Jackson obtained these articles in
Siberia himself or that they were brought from
there by Chukchi herders; but it is more likely
that the items were made in Alaska by Eskimos
who modeled them after Siberian prototypes. In
any event, they closely resemble reindeer equip-
ment used by Eskimos on St. Lawrence Island in
Bering Strait and by Eskimos and Chukchi on the
adjacent Siberian coast.

The first sled (cat. no. 13122), top photo, op-
posite, is about 6y2 feet long, 17 inches wide, and
weighs slightly over 20 pounds. The wooden
runners, curving up toward the front, are fas-
tened to narrower strips which curve over and
are spliced to short sections; these, in turn, are
lashed to parallel pieces forming the sides of the
bed. The bed itself is formed by two long pieces
of wood which run parallel to the side pieces and
five short crosspieces lashed at right angles to
them at approximately one-foot intervals. Under
each crosspiece is a curved antler stanchion
lashed to the bed and the runners. Further sup-
port is provided on each side by slanting pieces
which extend from the second stanchion (from
the front) to the runners between the third and
fourth stanchions. The bed is about half the
length of the sled Vertical wooden stanchions
are on each side between the first and second
antler stanchions. For additional support, lash-
ings extend from this point to the runners both in
front and behind . At the rear of the sled, a curved
piece of wood arches from one side of the back
stanchion to the same place on the opposite side.
On the left side a curved support piece — actually
two pieces spliced — extends from the runner be-

Siberian-style Alaskan
Eskimo sleds (above
#13122, below
#13123). m08462,
m08460

Re inclccx. (/(fltA^n_h.>

Late 19th-century
drawing by unknown
Bering Strait Eskimo.
Courtesy Smithsonian
Institution, National
Anthropological
Archives. 25

Above, left: reindeer collar (#19360, N108251 ); above right:
harnessed reindeer (photo courtesy Archives and Historical
Collections, the Episcopal Church): below: 19th-century
drawing by Eskimo, showing harness apparently made of
skin or leather (photo courtesy Smithsonian Institution,
National Anthropological Archives).

tween the fourth and fifth stanchions to the side
of the curved back piece. The sled shoes are rec-
tangular sections of whale rib with paired lashing
holes connected by a lashing slot. All lashings
and splices are with strips of untanned sealskin.

The second sled (cat. no. 13123), second
photo from top, previous page, is about 20 inches
longer than the first and about the same width.
Although constructed in much the same manner,
it is somewhat heavier and more solidly built.
Construction of the bed is similar except that
there are seven crosspieces and a corresponding
number of curved antler stanchions. The runners
extend to within a foot of the front, where they
are spliced to curved pieces which extend over
and are spliced to the sides of the bed just in front
of the first stanchion. There is a stabilizing cross-
piece which joins the two runners at the front of
the sled. Slanting reinforcements for the stan-
chions extend on either side from the bed at a
point just beyond the second stanchion to the
runners between the fifth and sixth stanchions.
All lashings and splices are made with tanned
strips of sealskin. There is no upright curved
piece at the back of this sled and one-piece whale
bone shoes are lashed to the runners.

A sled similar to the above two being pulled
by a pair of reindeer is shown in a late 19th-
century drawing on the previous page by an
unknown Bering Strait Eskimo. Flat-bedded
Alaskan Eskimo sleds, also used with reindeer,
were probably more suitable for heavy loads.

The Jackson collection contains a single rein-
deer collar (cat. no. 19360), above, which consists
of three curved pieces rather carefully fashioned
of spruce driftwood. All are approximately 36
inches in length; the harness fragments adhering
to them are strips of tanned sealskin with the hair
removed. All pieces are slightly countersunk on
one side in the area of harness slots, and the side
pieces are decorated with engraved half circles
and parallel lines.

The side pieces of such a collar fit rather far
back on the reindeer's neck and were tied togeth-
er at the notches on the bottom (see reindeer
photo, opposite). The top piece fits across the
animal's back in the same area. Strips of harness
extend from both sides and the top. A late 19th-
century Eskimo drawing (opposite page, bot-
tom) shows a complete reindeer harness appar-
ently made entirely of skin or commercially
tanned leather, rather than with a wooden collar
like Field Museum's specimen.

Dimensions of the collar just described indi-
cate that domestic reindeer were small animals.
They seldom grew to more than three feet at the
shoulders and were usually less than two-thirds
the size of their wild caribou relatives. The small
stature of reindeer is clearly illustrated in the
photo on page 23, which shows two of the ani-
mals with three Eskimo herders near Port Clar-
ence on Seward Peninsula. The remainder of a
herd can be seen in the background.

There are three reindeer whips in the Jack-
son collection, two of which are shown at left.
The whip on the right in the photo (cat. no.
13146) is 55 inches long and consists of a wood
shaft which widens slightly at the proximal end,
where a round antler ferule is attached. The
length has been increased by means of a much
shorter piece of wood spliced to the distal end
with sinew. A small ivory knob fits over the distal
tip and is attached with sinew. The harnessed
reindeer was encouraged to move faster by sim-
ply being touched with this knob. The driver in
the drawing on page 25 holds a similar whip. The
left whip shown here (cat. no. 13148) — 95 inches
long — has an ivory ferule at the proximal end of
the shaft; at the distal end a sealskin cracker is
attached with braided sinew.

Items of Siberian material culture like those
described here are among the few tangible re-
mains of an early government program to pro-
mote the welfare of Alaskan Eskimos. Although
domestic reindeer owned by Eskimos lasted in
some areas of Alaska as late as the mid-1940s, the
animals eventually disappeared and the herding
program must be regarded as a failure. Reasons
for this failure were multiple; among them were
poor herding techniques, predation, disease,
marketing problems, and vacillating govern-
ment policies.

Most important, perhaps, was the fact that
the nomadic routine required for good close
herding was scarcely compatible with the seden-
tary pattern of village life traditional to most
Alaskan Eskimos. Failure on the part of the gov-
ernment to appreciate this incompatibility was
probably the single most important reason for
the eventual complete failure of the reindeer
herding program. D

Reindeer whips
(#13148 at left,
#13146 at right).
m08689

Arctic Housing— Eskimo Style

by Daniel J. Joyce

StafTMember of the Maritime Peoples
of the Arctic and Northwest Coast Project

Cutaway replica of

Alaskan Eskimo house

in Gallery III, Hall 10.

Photo by Ron Testa.

Gallery III ("Village and Society") of Hall 10,
where the new exhibit, "Maritime Peoples of
the Arctic and Northwest Coast',' was installed
in April, features a cutaway full-scale replica of
an Eskimo* house of western Alaska. The house
is furnished with items of daily life that were
typical at the turn of the century.

In the soft glow of firelight during the long
winter nights, family members lounged about
in such a dwelling, talking of everyday affairs in
their remote comer of the world. For them, this
was the only world that mattered. They
stretched out on sleeping platforms, naked
under their animal-hide covers. To them, the
cool temperatures were comfortable. In the half-
light, they saw only walls of driftwood and
whalebone darkened with soot. Through the
smokehole in the ceiling, they may have caught
glimpses of the northern lights.

The tiny dwelling was partly underground;
a passageway, several feet long, led from the
entrance to the house interior. A drop of a few
feet in the passageway floor level trapped incom-
ing cold air (which is heavier) before it could
reach the main living area. Outside, the house
was covered with layers of sod, which also
helped keep out the cold. The house was thus

* Anthropologists place Eskimos, on the basis of geography,
in three groups: Alaskan and Siberian, Central (Canadian),
and Greenland. As used here, the term Eskimo designates all
native Arctic people. The Eskimos of the central Canadian
Arctic prefer to be called Inuit, meaning "real people" The
Algonkian word eskimo ("raw flesh eaters" ) is the only term
that refers to all Arctic peoples as a whole. There is no native
word that refers to all the people of the Arctic from Siberia to
Greenland. The term Eskimo is used here because of its famil-
iarity to the general readership.

Eskimos of the central
Arctic live in tempo-
rary igloos. Photo cour-
tesy Smithsonian
Institution.

1f9^ „Xc

' :^'Wr'"'"

1,1 f-;--*

msmw ^ ^*

H Ch ief reindeer herder
"^ at Point Hope, Alaska,
with his family outside
semisubterranean
house. Note the use of
sod blocks. Courtesy
the Archives and His-
torical Collections, the
Episcopal Church. 29

Eskimo woman mends
sealskin tent. Courtesy
Smithsonian Institu-
tion National Anthro-
pological Archives.

Eskimo village at

Point Hope, Alaska, in

the early 1880s.

Whalebone, stone, and

driftwood were used in

the construction of

these semisubterranean

houses. Note the

drying racks and

barrels. On the left is a

tent. Courtesy New

Bedford Whaling

Museum, New

Bedford, Mass.

comfortably insulated against the bitter
weather.

It was situated among several other houses
on a hill near the Bering Sea. The nearest houses
were those occupied by relatives within the
large extended family. Near the center of the
village was the somewhat larger kashgee, or kajiji,
used for ceremonies.

Next to each house were racks for drying
fish and meat, raised caches for storage, and
racks for boats and sledges. From the hill, the
villagers could scan the area for the game essen-
tial to their survival. They were also able to
observe from this vantage point any hostile
persons when still at a distance. These people
were fishermen, as are the Eskimos of today;
but they also hunted and continue to hunt land
and sea animals. Their struggle for survival was

a difficult one, with the threat of starvation
never far off.

The central concern of Eskimos, wherever
they may live, is the hunt and the struggle for
survival. Most Eskimos live on the tundra, with
its vast, rock-strewn hills. Vegetation here con-
sists of little more than moss, lichen, and low
shrub. During the brief summer, the topsoil
thaws down to the permafrost, but the melt-
water remains, resulting in a marshy, mosquito-
infested area, where walking can be difficult if
not treacherous. In the winter it is frozen solid
and snow covered. In this environment, the
Eskimo has developed a material culture using
only ice, snow, dirt, animal skins, and bone.
The bodies of animals provide not just food, but
clothing, tents, tools, utensils, weapons, lamp
oil, and ornaments.

Eskimos of the central Arctic, unlike those
of Alaska, live in temporary villages. They spend
their winters in large groups on the ice, where
hunting is better; and there they live in igloos.
In May, when the ice of the igloos begins to
melt, the roof is replaced with seal skin; the
walls, made of snow blocks, are left intact. Sum-
mer villages, with fewer Eskimos, consist of
tipi-shaped tents made up of double layers of
seal skin. Sixty or more skins may be used to
make a large tent. In the fall, when it is still too
warm for building igloos, they make only the
walls of their houses with blocks of lake ice; the
roof is covered with seal skin.

Greenland Eskimos make block-shaped
houses of stone and turf; the windows are
covered with translucent gut. This type of con-
struction may be attributable to the influence
of Norse settlers arriving on the island as early
as AD. 900 or to Danish colonists, who came
in 1721.

The coming of explorers, traders, and
whalers affected the style of Eskimo life, but the
changes occurred gradually. Many Eskimos
continue to live by the hunt today, but this activ-
ity has greatly changed since the introduction of
the repeating rifle. With this new ability to kill
game quickly and at much greater distances,
the old technology of the hunt became obsolete.
Other twentieth-century changes included the
type of dwelling: many Alaskan Eskimos now
live in frame buildings constructed from milled
lumber, though tents and igloos are still to be
seen. D

Members of the Department of Exhibition who constructed
and furnished the Eskimo House in Hall 10 were Mark Staff
Brandl, Barbara Burkhardt, Raoul Deal, Kathryn Field, Jeff
Hoke, Mitch Kane, Ed Kestler, Tom Lucas, Marty Matin,
Dan Oppenheimer, and the author. James VanStone, curator
of North American archaeology and ethnology, was
consultant.

Drawing of semi-
subterranean Eskimo
house on Nunivak
Island, used as basis
for Field Museum's
Eskimo house replica.
From Archaeology of
St. Lawrence Island,
Alaska, byH.B.
Collins, Jr. (1937).

Kaniagmiut house
near the Naknek River,
Alaska, about 1890. A
cache is at left and the
house is at right. Evi-
dences of enculturation
may be seen: wash tubs,
white clothing, metal
can, and chimney.
Courtesy Smithsonian
Institution National
Anthropological
Archives.

iW FIELD
MUSEL^

Come with Us to Kenya!

Field Museum Tbur for Members

September 11-30
Tour Price: $3,195

per person, double occupancy
single supplement: $430

optional extension to the Seychelles Islands: $1435 additional

Itineraiy

Sept. 11: Depart Chicago via British Airways
for London.

Sept. 12: Depart London in the evening via
British Airways for Nairobi, Kenya.
Sept. 13: Nairobi. Early morning arrival in
Nairobi, where you will be met and taken to
the luxurious Norfolk Hotel. The rest of the
day will be at leisure to relax, sleep, swim,
or wander around the shops.
Sept. 14: Mountain National Parks. Today
you are off on safari, driving past estates
and plantations to one of Kenya's gracious
up-country hotels, the Outspan. Enjov a buffet
lunch here; this afternoon continue into the
Mountain National Parks — a deeply forested
area. Overnight will be at Mountain Lodge,
a "tree house" sitting high above a lighted
waterhole where you watch the game.
Sept. 15: Samburu Game Reserve. Leaving
the park, continue along the vallev and the
slopes of Mt. Kenya, descending into rugged
Northern Province. Pass through the
town of Isiolo where your vehicle will be
surrounded by smiling Kenyans holding out
wares. Proceed to Samburu Game Reserve
and view game as you drive to the lovely
Samburu Lodge. Later in the day, a game
drive.

Sept. IG: Samburu Game Reserve. A full day
of viewing giraffe, zebra, and gerenuk.
Samburu is also a very good park for elephant
and leopard. Evening at the lodge.
Sept. 17: Mt. Kenya. After breakfast, drive
to Mount Kenya Safari Club. Spend a restful
afternoon at this resort with its magnificent
gardens situated under Mt. Kenya.
Sept. 18: Mt. Kenya. Taking a picnic lunch,
there will be a full day visit to a ranch for a
rare opportunity to view game on foot, or
you may wish to stay behind to enjoy the
club's tennis, swimming, horseback riding,
and trout fishing.

Sept. 19: Lake Naivasha. After breakfast,
drive towards Lake Naivasha. The bird life
is spectacular. In the afternoon you can swim
in the pool or just relax.
Sept. 20: Masai Mara Game Reserve. This
morning you will drive through the town of
32 Narok, the main Masai town where you may

wish to buy various wares. Proceed on to
Masai Mara Game Reserve and your luxury
camp, Kichwa Tembo. You will have an
afternoon game drive, followed by cocktails
around the campfire and a gourmet dinner.
Sept. 21: Masai Mara Game Reserve. A full
day of game viewing. Game here is limitless.
The lion population is very large. Also
elephant, rhino, giraffe, hyena, cape buffalo,
hartebeeste, topi, impala, gazelle, and bird
life. Explore the river area, seeing crocodile
or hippos. There is also the opportunity of a
walking safari — where you will track
animals on foot. After a long day in the bush,
enjoy drinks around the campfire and
dine in an elegance quite unexpected in
the wilderness.

Sept. 22: Nairobi. After breakfast drive back
to Nairobi, stopping en route for lunch at the
home of Mrs. Mitchell, a life-long resident
of Kenva, whose family began the first tea
plantation in Kenya in the 1920s.

Arrival back in Nairobi will be in the
mid-afternoon and will be at leisure for your
own activities.

Sept. 23: Amboseli National Park. Off on
safari again, heading towards Amboseli
National Park, famous for its big game and
superb view of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Following
lunch at the lodge, spend the afternoon game
viewing.

Sept. 24: Amboseli National Park. Following
early breakfast, a full day of game vie\ving,
taking a picnic lunch with you.

Sept. 25: Tsavo National Park. This morning
continue further south to Tsavo National
Park. View game before arriving at Kilaguni
Lodge for lunch. From the lodge watch the
game wander in to drink at the waterhole.
This afternoon go out in search of the great
herds of elephant. You will also visit at
Mzima Springs where you will view from an
underground tank hippo, crocodile and fish.
Late this afternoon arrive at Ngulia Lodge.

Sept. 2G: Mombasa. This morning drive to
the luxurious Taita Hills Lodge, set among
beautiful gardens. Continue southwards to
Mombasa and the TWo Fishes Hotel. Here
the balance of the day will be at leisure.

Sept. 27: Mombasa. A full day excursion to
Shimba Hills National Reserve, a forested
plateau. Later this afternoon return to the
comforts of your hotel.
Sept. 28: Mombasa. A full day at leisure to
relax on the beach, swim in the Indian
Ocean, or just soak up the tropical sun. There
is also the opportunity to hire a boat and
search for fish such as marlin, sailfish and
shark. If your preference is the underwater
world, you can go diving off the reef. This
evening wander down to a local hotel for a
cocktail or relax in the quiet of the Leopard
Beach Hotel.

Sept. 29: Nairobi. Morning flight back
to Nairobi, where day rooms have been
reserved at the Norfolk Hotel for your
convenience. The balance of the day will
be at leisure for shopping and sightseeing.
Late evening transfer to the airport for flight
to London.

Sept. 30: Chicago. Arrive London early this
morning and transfer to day rooms at the
Sheraton Skyline Hotel. Your Chicago flight
will leave early this afternoon, arriving in
Chicago later the same day.

An optional excursion to the Seychelles Islands
is available upon request. Operation of this
extension is contingent on the enrollment of
four or more people. The Seychelles, in the
heart of the Indian Ocean, are acclaimed as
one of the loveliest and most unspoiled
beauty spots. Thev offer an atmosphere of
timelessness and tranquility. Please let us
kno\v ifyou wish to have further information.

Audrey Faden, a native of Kenya, will be our
guest lecturer. With her keen interest in
wildlife, conservation, and plant life, she is
a natural to lead our tour. Audrey served
as Officer in Charge of Education at the
National Museum of Kenya, Nairobi, and
was instrumental in organizing Wildlife
Clubs of Kenya. She served on the Field
Museum volunteer staff and has done field
research and general collecting of plants in
Kenya.

For further information on this su-
perb tour, please call or write
Dorothy Roder, (312)322-8862.

OUR ENVIRONMENT

Squabbling California Condors
Have Second Egg

The pair of California condors that acci-
dentally lost their egg in a domestic squab-
ble in late February (as reported in the May
Bulletin) have laid a second egg, giving
condor biologists cause for rejoicing.

Biologists of the Condor Research Cen-
ter got their first look at the egg shortly
after noon on April 8, when the female
rolled it out of a dark corner of the nest-
hole into full view of an observation
station a half mile distant. The egg was
produced some time during the previous
day, judging from the behavior of the
female, and was laid in a cave about 100
yards distant from the cave the pair used
for their first egg. Both sites are located in
a remote mountainous region northeast of
Ventura, California.

The condor pair's first egg, laid on Feb-
ruary 14, was lost over the edge of the cliff
12 days later as the birds fought over which
would sit on it. The condors, believed to
be the same pair that successfully fledged
a chick in 1980, also squabbled at that time
over which would feed the young, but the
disputes did no apparent harm.

The condor biologists are not only con-
cerned about discord between the condor
pair, but are also worried about a pair of
opportunistic ravens that have already in-
truded into the condors' nest cave. Ravens
are known predators of the eggs of other
birds. Progress in the 60-day incubation of
the California condor egg laid on April 7
will be closely watched by the research
team.

The time between loss of the first egg
and laying of the second was about 40
days, according to Noel Snyder of the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service and John Ogden
of the National Audubon Society, co-lead-
ers of the Condor Research Center. "This
is the best evidence yet obtained that the
critically endangered California condor
will re-nest after a nesting failure early in
the breeding season',' Snyder said.

Relaying after early egg loss has long
been known for captive Andean condors,
but whether the California species might
act similarly has been a matter of conjec-
ture. The question now appears to be
resolved.

The ability of the Andean condors to
re-lay after failure has enabled zoos and
research institutions such as the Patu-
xent Wildlife Research Center to greatly
increase the breeding rate of this close
relative of the California condor. Andean
condors, like California condors, normally
lay only a single egg every other year. If an
egg is removed from the nest to be
hatched in an incubator, the pair can usu-

ally be expected to lay a second egg about
a month later, a process called "double
clutching'.' If the second egg is likewise
removed, the parents sometimes will lay
even a third egg. In this way, capHve re-
production can be multiplied greatly over
what pairs normally produce in the wild.

Biologists hope to be able to double and
triple clutch captive California condors.
Captive breeding of California condors re-
cently received federal and state approval
as an important part of the efforts to save
the species from extinction. Only about 30
California condors remain in the wild, all
in southern California. There is only one
individual in captivity, a male bird at the
Los Angeles Zoo, named Topatopa.

Snyder and Ogden emphasize the im-
portance of the recent proof of natural
double clutching to the captive breeding
program. If wild pairs will re-nest after
early failure, it should be possible to estab-
lish a captive population by taking wild
eggs for artificial incubation without
having much effect on natural wild pro-
duction and without reducing the size of
the wild population.

Only four other active pairs of condors
have been located by the research team.
One of these produced a fledgling last
year and is not expected to breed this year
as they are still caring for this youngster.
None of the other three pairs has laid as
yet, with one month to go in the egg-lay-
ing season. The research team is keeping
close track of all these pairs from a safe
distance.

Federal Studies of
Bird and Aircraft Collisions

Like oil and water, birds and planes don't
mix. When they do, the skills of the wild-
life biologist and the professional airport
manager are often needed to get them
apart, and keep them separated.

Each year, more than 1,400 collisions
between birds and aircraft occur in the
United States. Although the toll in deaths
and injuries is fortunately low, an estimat-
ed $20 million in damage is caused to air-
craft annually.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
and the Federal Aviation Administration
are working on research projects that may
help reduce bird strikes and improve the
margin of safety for the traveling public.
These studies are part of an existing
agreement between the two federal agen-
cies to step up the identification of bird ha-
zards at airports. They range in scope
from a study of bird strike hazards at air-
ports as part of the development of proto-

type risk maps that could be used nation-
wide, to surveys of bird-tempting earth-
worms that emerge on rain-soaked run-
ways at particular airports.

Bird hazards have grown since the
early days of flight, as airplanes have be-
come larger and faster and air traffic lanes
more congested. Since the 1940s, when re-
cords were first kept on the death toll from
bird strikes, more than 150 people have
been killed in collisions blamed wholly or
partly on birds.

Serious air collisions with birds most
typically involve small private jets or tur-
boprop airplanes. In September 1981, for
instance, a collision between seagulls and
a U.S. Air Force T-38 at Cleveland's Burke
Lakefront Airport claimed the life of the
commander of the military's famed Thun-
derbird Demonstration Team. Another
death occurred last spring when a migrat-
ing common loon crashed through the
windshield of an executive jet near Cincin-
nati, killing the co-pilot and injuring the
pilot. (A four-pound bird struck by an air-
plane traveling at 300 mph exerts almost
nine tons of force at its point of impact; at
600 mph, the force jumps to 36 tons.)

Occasionally the death toll and air-
craft damage can reach even more serious
proportions. A 1960 collision between a
commercial airliner and a flock of starlings
claimed the lives of 62 people at Boston's
Logan Airport. In 1975, a plane with 129
passengers at Kennedy Airport in New
York sucked a flock of seagulls into an en-
gine on take-off. A fire broke out that con-
sumed the plane within five minutes,
although all passengers were evacuated
safely.

"As long as man competes with birds
for airspace, there will be the danger of
collisions. The trick is to avoid having
them compete for the same space at the
same time and to reduce the attractiveness
of airports to birds," says a Fish and Wild-
life Service official. "Through the research
projects that we are currently conducting,
we hope to gain a much greater under-
standing of the natural forces that draw
birds to airports, so that they can be com-
pensated for in the design, siting, and op-
eration of these facilities."

The service provides technical assist-
ance to nearly 200 airports with bird prob-
lems each year. That assistance can range
from solutions that temporarily disperse
problem flocks of birds through the use of
noisy propane cannons and shellcrackers
to full biological surveys that recommend
altering vegetation or drainage patterns
around airports. In this latest series of re-
search projects, however, biologists hope
to learn more about the basic biological
factors that draw birds to airports. 33

June & July at Field Museum

June 16 through July 15

New Exhibits

"Exhibitions, Expeditions and Expositions" This photo-
graphic essay offers the viewer a look at the construction
of Field Museum's building more than 60 years ago and
of some famous exhibits. It is now on display between
the Anniversary Exhibit in Hall 3 and the entrance to
"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast"
(Hall 10) . Designed by Don Emery and researched by
Beverly Serrell, Exhibition, and the Field Museum Photog-
raphy Department.

Continuing Exhibits

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast'.'
Just opened! Field Museum's new permanent exhibit
compares the theatrically ornate cultures of the Pacific
Northwest Coast with the austere but individualistic
Eskimo societies. Their prehistoric origins, history, food-
gathering, social life, spiritual beliefs, art ranging from
massive totem poles to exquisite basketry— all are shown
in five galleries through displays, dioramas, full-sized
replicas, and films. It's an exhibit you'll return to again
and again for new insights into these remarkable peoples
and their triumph over the environment.

"Place FOR Wonder? "Touch everything!" is the motto
of this mini-museum, a delight to young and old alike.
Look for a new exhibit in the People's Center showcasing
clothing, toys, and everyday objects from India, opening
injune. Continuing exhibits include "Earthquake Charlie^
a huge Alaskan polar bear; volcanic ash from Mt. St.
Helens; and collections of fossils, minerals, and shells.
Many labels also in braille. Open 1-3 daily. Saturday and
Sunday 10-12, 1-3.

"The Insect World? View butterflies from many parts of
the world, with their brilliant turquoise, purple, orange,
and red hues. Madagascar's iridescent "Less" butterfly
alone displays 8 dazzling colors! Moths range in size
from the "Hercules" of New Guinea, with a 10-inch wing
span, to the tiny "Blackberry Borer? Rivaling the "Her-
cules" is the huge African "Rhinoceros beetle" — 8 inches
long, including 2-inch-long pincers. Main floor, outside
Hall 21.

New programs

"The Art of Papermaking? Field Museum's June Family
Feature for parents and children of all ages. Saturday's
program includes a slide lecture on papermaking tech-
niques such as coloring, sizing, pressing, and drying;
and the opportunity for participants to make their ovin
sheet of paper. On Sunday, the slide program will be
followed by a film on Japanese papermaking. Lecture
Hall I. Saturday and Sunday,June 19 and 20 at 2 p.m.

"Tales from the Smokehouse? The Theatre Sans Fil (No
Strings Puppet Theatre) from Montreal uses giant puppets
(6 to 12 feet tall) to retell the legends of Canada's Indians.
The stories are told by tribal elders to the younger men
as they gather in a smokehouse to purify their souls.
More than 40 stringless pupp)ets in costumes inspired by
Northwest Coast designs are used to act out two stories.
The first, "Blue Sky Takes a Wife',' is an Ojibway love
story; the second, "The White Raven',' explains the Tsim-
shian view of creation. Members $3; nonmembers, $4.
James Simpson Theatre. Saturday and Sunday, June 26
and 27 at 2 p.m.

"In Search of Dinosaurs? Take a Summer Journey among
Field Museum's dinosaur specimens! Discover the basic
facts about dinosaurs and their closest relatives. For a
self-guiding tour, free Journey pamphlets are available at
Museum entrances.

Summer Fun Workshops for Young People. Field Museum's
exhibits will come alive for the young people ages 4 to 15
who participate in one of the more than 80 workshops

offered this summer. These workshops take place Monday
through Saturday and are taught by Field Museum staff,
Chicago area teachers, and visiting artists. Children can,
for instance, press flowers, make flutes, write in Chinese,
or make a casting of a giant fossil tooth. Workshops
include "Bug Hunt',' "Inside the Volcano',' "Northwest
Coast Masks," "Whales," "Dragons and Dinosaurs," "Sum-
mer Sprouts," and many more. For more information
and to receive a brochure, call (312) 322-8854. July 6-
August 2.

Weekend Discovery Programs. These weekend programs
of tours, films, and slide presentations will provide the
springboard for a better understanding of natural history.
Check "Weekend Sheet" at Museum entrances for addi-
tional programs and locations.
June 19 at 11:30 a.m.: "Ancient Egypt" tour.

at 2 p.m.: "Malvina Hoffman" film and slide

lecture.
June 26 at 1 p.m.: "Tibet Today" film program.

at 2 p.m.: "Tibet" tour.

July 3 at 2:30 p.m. : "Indians of North America" tour.

July 10 at 3:00 p.m.:
July 11 at 2:00 p.m.:

"Life in Ancient Egypt" tour.
"Northwest Coast Indians: Cedar
Carvings" tour.

Continuing Programs

Museum Hours. Field Museum instituted new hours
beginning May 1. The Museum is now open daily, includ-
ing Saturdays and Sundays, from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., year-
round. There will be no more late Friday hours. The free
day is now Thursday, instead of Friday. The Museum
is closed on Thanksgiving Day, Christmas, and New
Year's Day.

Library Hours. Duringjune and July the Museum Library
is open weekdays from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. It will be closed
on Monday, July 5. To visit the Library, obtain a pass at
the reception desk, main floor.

Volunteer Opportunities. Individuals with scientific
interests and backgrounds are needed to work in various
Museum departments. Contact the Volunteer Coordina-
tor, 922-9410.

Museum Telephone: (312) 922-9410

Fieldiana: 1981 Titles

Fieldiana is a continuing series of sci-
entific papers and monographs in the
disciplines of anthropology, botany,
zoology, and geology; the series is in-
tended primarily for exchange-distri-
bution to museums, libraries, and
universities, but all titles are also
available for public purchase.

The following titles, published in
1981, may be ordered from the Divi-
sion of Publications. Members are
entitled to a 10 percent discount. Pub-
lication number should accompany
order. A catalog of all available Fieldi-
ana titles is available on request.
(Please specify discipline: anthropol-
ogy, botany, geology, or zoology.)

Fieldiana: Anthropology

1326. "An analysis of Santa Maria Urn
Painting and Its Cultural Implications',' by
Ronald L. Weber. New Series Number 2.

$3.75.

1327. "Catalogue of Chinese Rubbings
from Field Museum',' researched by
Hoshien Tchen and M. Kenneth Starr, pre-
pared by Alice K. Schneider, photo-
graphed by Herta Newton and Field
Museum Division of Photography, edited
by Hartmut Walravens. New Series
Number 3. $6750.

1328. "Athapaskan Clothing and Related
Objects in the Collections of Field Museum
of Natural History,' By James W. Van-
Stone. New Series Number 4. $7.00.

Fieldiana: Botany

1317. "Ferns and Fern Allies of Guatemala
— Part II Polypodiaceae',' by Robert G.
Stolze, the Genus Elaphogiossum by John
T. Mickel, the Genus Thelypteris by Alan
R. Smith. New Series Number 6. $23.50.

1319. "Flora of Peru — Family Compositae
Part II, Tribe Anthemideae',' by J. Francis
MacBride and Collaborators and Michael
O. Dillon. New Series Number 7 $2.75.

1322. "Five New Species of Brunfelsia
from South America (Solanaceae)',' by
Timothy Plowman. New Series Number
8. $2.50.

Fieldiana: Geology

1315. "The Mammalian Fauna of Madura
Cave, Western Australia, Part IV',' by
Ernest L. Lundelius, Jr. and William D.
Turnbull. New Series Number 6. $7.50.

1318. "Review of the Hathlyacyninae, an
Extinct Subfamily of South American
'Dog-like' Marsupials',' by Larry G. Mar-
shall. New Series Number 7 $11.75.

1320. "The Families and Genera of Marsu-

pialia',' by Larry G. Marshall. New Series
Numbers. $6.75.

1321. "Geology and Geochronology of the
Mammal-bearing Tertiary of the Valle de
Santa Maria and Rio Corral Quemado,
Catamarca Province, Argentina',' by Larry
G. Marshall and Bryan Patterson. New
Series Number 9. $8.00.

1323. "Introduction and Index to Fieldiana:
Geology Volume 33',' by Eugene S. Rich-
ardson, Jr. and William D. Turnbull. Vol-
ume 33, Number 31. No charge.

Fieldiana: Zoology

1316. "A Multivariate Study of the Family
Molossidae (Mammalia, Chiroptera):
Morphology, Ecology, Evolution',' by Pa-
tricia Waring Freeman. New Series
Number 7 $13.25.

1324. "The Blennioid Fishes of Belize and
Honduras, Central America, with Com-
ments on their Systematics, Ecology, and
Distribution (Blennidae, Chaenopsidae,
Labrisomidae, Tripterygiidae)',' by David
W. Greenfield and Robert Karl Johnson.
New Series Number 8. $11.50.

1325. "Taxonomy and Evolution of the Sin-
ica Group of Macaques: 2. Species and
Subspecies Accounts of the Indian Bonnet
Macaque, Macaca Radiata',' by Jack Food-
en. New Series Number 9. $5.50. 35

!lllJ}J

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin

July/August 1982

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

President: WiUard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Kathryn Laughlin
Calendar: Mary Cassai
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

Board OF Trustees

James J. O'Connor

chaitviaii
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gorden Bent
Bowen Blair
Willard L. Boyd
Stanton R. Cook
O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E, Donnelley 11
Marshall Field
Richard M. Jones
Hugo J. Melvoin
Charles F. Murphy, Jr.
Lorin 1. Nevling, Jr.
James H. Ransom
JohnS. Runnells
William L. Searle
Edward Byron Smith
Robert H. Strotz
John W. Sullivan
William G. Swartchild, Jr.
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Julian B. Wilkins
Blaine J. Yarrington

Life Trustees

Harry O. Bercher
Joseph N. Field
Paul W. Goodrich
Clifford C. Gregg
Samuel Insull, Jr.
William V. Kahler
William H, MitcheU
John M. Simpson
J. Howard Wood

CONTENTS

July/August 1982
Volume 53, Number 7

New Exhibit ofPhilippine Art and
Culture Opensjuly 17

Field Museum and the Philippines

bvBennet Branson, associate curator of
Asian archaeology and ethnology

Peru's Preceramic Menu

by Barbara Jackson and Terry Stacker

■a,

Morpho: Thejewel of TVopical Rain Forests

by Allen M. Young 24

Kenya Tbur for Members

Egjpt Tbur for Members

Field Briefs

July, August, and September at Field Museum

Calendar of Coming Events

back
cover

COVER

Wooden santo: San Isidra.ar St. Isidore, the patron of good
harvests. Polychrome over this gesso on hardwood. 18th-19th
centun: 54 cm. Lent bv Luis Ma Araneta, Manila. One of the
420 objects displayed in the new exhibit, "The People and Art
of the Philippines," on liew in Hall 26 from July 17 through
December 31. Photo by Ron Testa.

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
July/ August issue, bv Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, n. 60605, Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletm subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policv of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone (312) 922-9410. Postmaster: Please send from 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. 1SSN:11015-0703. Second class postage
paid at Chicago, II.

The People and Art of the Philippines

Exhibit Opens July 17

Members' Preview July 16

^Noven cotton headcloth from Sulu Archipelago; Samal or Yakan. 98 cm. Collection of Field Museum. Gift of Dr. Alexander Spoehr. #257291.

This impressive assemblage of 420 artifacts,
on view until December 31, is the largest spe-
cial exhibition of traditional Filipino art to be
held anywhere since 1905, with loans from
16 museums and 13 private collections in the
United States, Europe, and the Philippines.
The objects were selected to give a compre-
hensive view of the culture of this former

Spanish and then American colony, now a
major Southeast Asian nation. Special
emphasis is on prehistoric ceramics and
gold, Catholic arts of Spanish colonial times,
wood sculpture of the northern Philippines,
and the extraordinary textiles of the southern
Philippines. On view in Hall 26. Members'
preview: Friday, July 16 from 1 to 9 p.m. 3

Field Museum

AND

The Philippines

by Bennet Bronson
Associate Curator, Asian Archaeology^ and Ethnology

Colonialism and

The Cummings Expedition

The Museum's first serious involvement with the
Philippines came as an indirect result of the great
St. Louis World Exposition of 1904, where objects
and peoples from the colonies of several nations
were on display. As the Philippines had only
recently become an American colony, having
been acquired during the Spanish-American War
of 1898, and as America had no other colonies, the
extensive Philippine exhibits at St. Louis created
both a sensation and an awareness of a problem.
The sensation came from the rich variety of
cultures that existed in the new colony, ranging
from those of headhunters to those of sophisti-
cated city dwellers. The handsome and magni-
ficently costumed Bagobos impressed most
visitors, as did an exhibit of Philippine export
crafts and industries, and a contingent of notably
fierce-looking Bontocs. Few visitors seem to have
been uncomfortable at the zoo-like aspects of
having colonial subjects on display. Such things

George Dorsey. N108072

were customary at world's fairs in those days,
and besides, many of the colonial subjects are
reported to have enjoyed the experience.

The problem that bothered thoughtful vis-
itors was that America had obviously bitten off
more than it could easily, or should, chew. Many
agreed with Mark Twain that a free nation should
not have colonies in the first place. Others were
uncomfortable about a point the exposidon
brought home with special force: our sheer ig-
norance about what we had gotten into. Com-
pared with the English or Dutch, Americans
knew nothing about running colonies, and com-
pared with most colonies of most European pow-
ers, the Philippines were poorly known in the
first place. The Spanish had controlled only the
central three-fifths of the country. Parts of the
northern and southern ends of the Philippines
were sHU as much terra incognita as the basins of
the Congo and Amazon.

It may have been because of this that, in late

1905, a grain merchant from Clifton, Illinois,
Robert F. Cummings, approached the Museum
with a startling proposition: he was willing to
fund extensive anthropological research in the
Philippines with two apparent provisions, that
the people of Illinois should benefit and that the
work should begin immediately.

The Museum was definitely interested. It
had just failed in an attempt to purchase some of
the Philippine material exhibited at St. Louis
(which had already been promised to the
Smithsonian) and was pleased to find another
way of building up its collections. Several
months of discussions between Cummings
and George Dorsey, chief curator of the
Anthropology Department then followed.
Agreement was abruptly reached in March,

1906. Cummings pledged no less than $20,000
to cover all expenses of fieldwork. In return,
the Museum seems to have guaranteed to
bear the costs of setting up a large permanent
Philippine exhibition.

After that, things moved quickly. S. C.

S. C. Simms. N78430

Simms (then assistant curator of ethnology) was
already on a ship to Manila by the end of April,
and within the next three years no fewer than
four other Field Museum anthropologists de-
parted for the Philippines. Simms was there
from June through December 1906 and again
from April 1909 to January 1910. Faye Cooper
Cole stayed from January 1907 to June 1908 and
from October 1909 to January 1911; Laura
Benedict from August 1906 to February 1908;
William Jones from September 1907 to March
1909 (when he was killed before his work was

completed); and Dorsey himself for a flying visit
in December 1908. By the end of 1911, when all
objects, photographs, recordings, and notes
were back in Chicago, the Museum found
itself with not only an unparalleled collec-
tion but a treasure trove of written data that
has thus far resulted in at least eight books
and numerous articles.

The next few pages present excerpts from
field letters that did not appear in any of those
books or articles. These have been chosen partly
for their anthropological and historical interest
but also partly because of the (sometimes unflat-
tering) light they shed on the attitudes and prob-
lems of scientists working in the field.

Letters from the field

SIMMS TO DORSEY, SEPTEMBER 7, 1906

S. C. Simms, more museologist than fieldworker, was
thrown into the breach as the only person in the An-
thropology Department who could be spared from his
Chicago duties at the time the Cummings agreement
was finalized. He was sent out almost immediately,
without time to learn much about either the Philippines
or its cultures. Considering the disadvantages under
which he worked, he made a passable collection but, as
this and many of his other letters show, he did not enjoy
the experience. Here Simms is writing from comforta-
ble surroundings in the then newly established resort
town ofBaguio:

My dear Dorsey:

No one regrets more than I in having to abandon

Tinguian cargadores
in Bangued, Abra
Province, Luzon.
Photo by Charles
Martin] ca. 1905.
N28788

Embroidered men's jacket 0/ abaca cloth, from Mindanao,
Bila-an. 53 cm. Collection of Field Museum. #129374.

my collecting in Benguet Prov/^^ — at least
until I am able to be about. Nothing serious
but it came mighty near it and I don't care for
a repetition of it.

The Aguo river, which Prof. Wooster
warned*^' me about did the trick. I reached the
bank of the Aguo Sunday morning after 4 hours
of hiking to find the river up a bit.

Could not get my personal cargadores*^' to
cross it then. River kept rising with increased
rainfall. Did not prepare for chow as was told
was not necessary for I could get rice, camotes,
etc. along trail. Two of the cargadores were
dispatched to find a house but could not. So
under the shelter of a huge rock on a very rocky
bed we stayed while it rained and rained — and
until the following morning without a single
mouthful to eat — 29 hours since last meal. Built
fires and attracted attention to natives on other
side of river who came on Monday to river edge.
After river had fallen slightly and plunged in
way up stream and landed on my side. After
many gestures they understood to carry cargo,
cargadores and myself over. Every thing and
person but myself and horse got over without
accident. I was it. Two natives leading horse
^vith me in saddle to give it weight — and just in

midstream the brute stumbled, fell, went under
and me with him. Downstream we went at a
very lively pace, finally landing against a large
boulder with horse against me and my back and
shoulder testify that I hit something pretty hard
and for the poor brute he received a gash over
his eye. As soon as we could get the horse out-
— and it was a hard job — 1 went as fast as possi-
ble to Bangras'"*' where I had something to eat
and a change of clothes — proceeded then to
Caboyan where I slept and left next morning for
Ambuklao trying to get to Baguio where there is
a sanitorium. Bruises and wrenches hurting

1. He was collecting among the Kankanay and
Ibaloi, ethnic groups inhabiting the area around and
near Baguio.

2. Dean C. Worcester, who often appears in these
letters, was then America's leading expert on the
minority peoples of the Philippines. He had recently
finished serving on the Presidium-like Taft Committee
and held the powerful post of colonial secretary of
the interior. Simms misspells his name deliberately;
the two men were not fond of each other.

3. Spanish for "porters" or "bearers."

4. Several of the place names in Simm's account can-
not be identified.

like body [?]. Had to cross the same (Aguo)

river at Ambukeo by being pulled across on
a high stretched carabao hide rope of slender
diameter — seated in carabao yoke — however I
got across — likewise cargo and cargadores the
same way — had chow at Ambukeo — then for
Baguio and while on top of mountain near
Ambukeo typhoon drove me to shelter in native
house near Tabyo — 4 hours from Baguio.

Been here but a day nursing.

Typhoon continues at rate of 1 in. rainfall
one hour and it will take days and days for the
trails to dry and my injuries to improve.

DORSEY TO COLE, JUNE 3, 1907

George Dorsey kept close track of his fieldworkers from
Chicago. While his rather frank criticisms of Simms
seem a bit harsh, they reveal the writer as a good
anthropologist. He not only gives generally sensible
advice but has a surprisingly modern attitude toward
the goals of fieldwork.

. . .1 have commented on Simms collection before.
1 may say to you confidentially again that it is
very unsatisfactory from many points of view;

especially it represents nothing completely,
no art, no industry, no ceremonies; represents
odds and ends which were found in site, but
which have no particular coherence. Simms is a
good judge of good material, and of course his
specimens all are of high excellence individually,
but they represent links rather than a chain
which exhibits a story. The collection represents
no processes; it is quite devoid of games, traps,
snares; has no foods, nothing illustrating the
methods of preparation of foods; and is of course
very weak in all the little ephemeral things which
are in themselves trite and trivial, but which are
essential to illustrate the culture. We want col-
lections which will illustrate completely all the
different groups of people which you encounter.
Do your work deliberately; be in no hurry; do it
thoroughly, completely and well. I have no
doubt of your ability, and no fear of your failing.
It would possibly be more to the Museum's
interest for you to keep moving from one place
to another, rapidly amassing material, but this
would be of no great credit to you. It is much
more to your credit, more to our honor and
glory if you do nothing else than to cover one
distinctive group of peoples, doing them
thoroughly and well.

Upper right: Faye
Cooper Cole. N44788

COLE TO DORSEY, APRIL 22, 1907

Faye Cooper Cole was younger, better trained, and
much more field-oriented than Simms. He also had
more local background, having just completed several
months' study in Berlin, than a leading center for
Philippine studies. In this letter, written from
Bangued in the northwestern corner of Luzon, he is de-
scribing part of a recent journey in Tinguian country,
seeking a little known subtribe called "Alzados" by
their neighbors.

Cole seems a good deal more cheerftd than Sirmns
about the rigors of the field.

. . .At last, we reached the summit, and after a
rather more rapid descent, came to the first rice
fields where about fifty Alzados,*'* armed with
shields, spears, and axes, awaited us. It was a
mighty interesting sight but one which made

my cargadores hunt for padlocks to be sure that
their heads were fastened on securely. When
they learned our mission, the whole party
fell in behind and accompanied us to the first
rancheria,'^' Am-ti, where we had a big feast
of venison and eels. After Amti, we spent two
days at Danoc, and were always given the fat
of a lean land. Leaving Danoc, I started down
the Ikmin River to Duamon, also spelled
Doa-angan, a town no white man had ever
seen, and the reason for this was soon
evident; the river in places ran through a
canon not fifty yards wide and cut through
solid granite; the "trail" ran above the river
ten or fifteen feet, and in few places could
you put your feet together. The smooth rocks
offered no hand hold, and a slip meant at least a
bath in the rushing waters and perhaps broken
bones. With ordinary shoes, the trip could not
be made, but 1 was provided with rope sole
pragatos and got along nicely. Until near the
village, we had crossed the river when necessary
on two bamboo poles which served as bridges,
but just at dark, we had to plunge in and ford
where the water was waist deep and so swift as
almost to carry us away. We were two days with
these people and while there accidentally saw
an interesting ceremony'"*' which I have since
learned is also practiced by the Tinguianes. The
plunge in the river resulted in wet clothes which
we hung out to dry over night. In the morning,
a pair of trousers was missing, and diligent
search failed to disclose the thief. After a con-
sultation, the old men brought out a rice mortar

1. Cole later concludes that the Alzados are a mixed
group, partly Bontoc and partly Tinguian.

2. "Rancheria" here means a small settlement or ham-
let, not a ranch.

3. Oath rituals for detecting malefactors are common
in many societies. This particular ritual seems more
effective in providing free beer for everyone than in
restoring Cole's trousers.

Bagobo women in gala
dress, Davao Province,
Mindanao. Photo by
Faye Cooper Cole, ca.
1910. N34859

Bagobo musicians of
Davao Province,
Mindanao. Photo by
Faye Cooper Cole, ca.
1910. N21460

on which they put a dish containing basi and a
knife; they then prayed to the spirits that the
thief might die, the snakes bite him, or disaster
come to his fields and family. This done, they
made every man, woman, and child stand before
the mortar and pray to the spirits that these
calamities might fall on them if they were guilty.
A jar of basi*"** was then opened, and we had a
drinking bout after which, they presented us
with a spear and shield to make good the loss.
They told me that they would soon know the
thief as the guilty one would have the misfortune
he had invoked, and that then he or his family
must pay for the basi and the presents; if he
should not be detected, the expense would be
divided among the whole people.

JONES TO DORSEY, MARCH 19, 1909

William Jones was murdered by the Ilongots with him
nine days after the following letter ivas written. One-
quarter Crow Indian and brought up as an Indian in
Oklahoma, Jones had been a remarkable success story,
becoming in succession a cowboy, a pupil in a school for
Indians, and then graduating from Andover, Harvard,
and Columbia, where he became the first American
Indian to get a Ph.D. in anthropology.

His frontier background and his acute love of na-
ture seems to have eased his acclimatization in what
then, as now, was one of the wildest parts of the Philip-

4. "Basi" is the rice beer of the Luzon mountain area.

'^^<r-M

Ceramic vessel from

Negros island. First

millenium B.C.

31.2 cm. Lent by the

University Museum,

University of

San Carlos, Cebu

City, Cebu.

pines. These traits may also, however, have cost him
his life. He was a tough and brave man, working
among a people where such machismo could easily
prove fatal.

He is ivriting from Dumubatu near the edge of
llongot country, in western central Luzon, having
been delayed there by reports of cholera in belter-
pacified areas downstream near Echague.

My dear Doctor Dorsey:

I thought I had sent you my last letter from this
bunch of llongots but here goes another because
I have a chance to send it. I am still here because
the men have not yet made balsas enough to
raft me and my all down to Echague. When
Bowers''' left here last fall he cleaned up all the
balsas; and though the river has fallen 2 months
earlier than last year the men have not been
able to build other balsas. The bamboo material
is just far enough away to make it risky to go for
it and as 1 write a bunch of men have gone out
to search for 2 youths who went for bamboo
yesterday and have not returned and you see
the weather is growing more torrid every day
and the sun can now shine for a whole day at a
time. As a result every llongot house is on the
watch for prowlers looking for heads and ambi-
tious youths are off looking for the same in other
districts. As Capt. Bowers said at Tamie when
the llongots refused to do his bidding because
what he wanted involved a taboo: "This may be
good ethnology, Jones, but by God it makes me

1. A U.S. Army officer who had commanded a recent
pacifying expedition.

tired." He said he had seen many kinds of
damned fools in these islands but the llongot
was the damnedest. Well I don't know that I
would agree with the sentiments he expressed,
but he is probably correct when he thinks the
llongot exasperating from a practical point of
view. I shall need about 15 balsas and I've sent
for Panipagan and Kagadyanan to come down
with 8 but I don't know what is keeping them.
1 would not bet on it but 1 believe I shall be out
of here in 10 days.

I've just returned from a visit of nearly a
week in the mountains of the west. I got a few
objects I did not have and a little extra informa-
tion. What wearied me was to hear of my Alikod
friends off on a head hunt, their objective being
Gumiyad. This place is southwest of Ifugu in
the mountains and is said to be a large district.
1 tried getting there once but my friends balked
on account of the rains, the prospect of lack of
food and the report that a war party of Gumiyad
was in the neighborhood of Alikod. They wanted
to get on trail of the party and cut off its return.
Please don't entertain any notion that I am seek-
ing for adventure and naturally there's a little
risk but so there is riding in the cart behind
the old grey mare. The point is this — warfare
among the wildmen of Luzon is rapidly being
checked*^' and this is practically the only ter-
ritory where the mice have free play. And so
all I've desired and still desire is to observe
and note what happens.

. . . Smith*^' sent me word that the cholera

2. Not among the llongot, as it turned out. They were
still hunting heads as late as the 1970s.

3. A trader.

Continued on p. 28

William fones

A Philippine Afternoon

Sunday, July 18

Celebrate the traditions and cultural heritage
of the Philippines on Sunday, July 18, at Field
Museum. This special event complements the
opening of our newest exhibit, "The People and
Art of the Philippines',' on view from July 17
through December 31. Including 400 objects
selected from 29 museums and private collections
throughout the w^orld, this exhibit is the first
comprehensive survey of Filipino art ever organ-
ized in the United States. It represents all periods
and styles of Filipino art from prehistoric to
modern times.

"A Philippine Afternoon" features traditional
Philippine dance by Lakambini of the Urban
Gateways Folk Arts Program at 1:30 p.m. and
3:30 p.m. A troupe of young artists dedicated to
preserving their Filipino heritage, Lakambini
performs dances that reflect the Indo-Malaysian,

Muslim, and Spanish influences found through-
out the Philippines. Lakambini dances to a
kulitang orchestra, with traditional music made
on a set of graduated gongs. Come and taste
delicious Philippine cuisine from 1:00 p.m. to
3:00 p.m. Sample both indigenous dishes and
foods reflecting the influence of Indonesian,
Asian, and Spanish cultures. Dr. Bennet Bronson,
associate curator of Asian Archaeology and
Ethnology at Field Museum, offers an illustrated
lecture entitled "The Philippine Connection" at
2:00 p.m. in Lecture Hall I. His lecture traces the
history of Field Museum's outstanding collection
of Philippine artifacts; the Museum's collection
is considered to be one of the world's finest.

All events are free with admission to the
Museum. Tickets are not required. "A Philippine
Afternoon" is a Related Learning Museum Special
Event. For more information, call (312) 322-8854.

Overlooking the lush
greenness of the irri-
gated river valley is the
ancient Chimu fortress
at Paramonga, 200 km
north of Lima. The 52
rivers that cross-cut
the narrow ribbon of
coastal desert, only 10
of which flow year-
round, provide the only
water for irrigation of
the coastal area.

Peru's Preceramic Menu

by Barbara Jackson and Terry Stacker
Photos courtesy of the authors

One of the Major Areas of prehistoric civili-
zation in the New World is the stark desert land-
scape of coastal Peru. The founders of this
ancient civilization constructed elaborate stone
buildings almost 4,000 years ago. This monu-
mental architecture, a hallmark of civilization, is
the earliest in the New World and was erected by
a population to which the technology of ceramics
was still unknown — a unique situation in world
history. Essential to an understanding of how

civilization developed in such a barren, austere
environment is a consideration of food resources
that comprised the preceramic menu.

The role of maritime resources in the devel-
opment of sedentary populations has ignited
anthropological controversy and discussion.
One school of thought, led by Michael Moseley,
associate curator of Middle and South American
archaeology and ethnology at Field Museum,
proposes that the food supplies made available

by the teeming Peru Current provided a substan-
tial basis for civilization development. Oppo-
nents of this theory — citing the unreliability of
the sea as a constant food source and the low
protein value of seafood — argue that Peru's
irrigated river valleys were the predominant
geographical area providing the food base for
a developing civilization.

COASTAL ENVIRONMENT and FOOD GATHERING

A great variety of ecological zones, resulting from
the unique geography of the Peruvian coastal
strip, appears to have enabled the preceramic
groups to amass and store considerable amounts
of food. The desert coast strip, ranging from 10 to
80 km (about 6 to 50 miles) in width, extends the
length ofPeru, a total of 2, 250 km. Totheeast, the

desert sands ascend abruptly into the backdrop of
the towering Andes Mountains, the source for
the 52 rivers that flow through the coastal zone
into the Pacific. The exaggerated ascent of the
coastal shelf to the Andes is occasionally inter-
rupted by low hills, known as lomas, or fog
oases. The cold and immensely rich Peru Current
(formerly called the Humboldt Current) borders
the ribbon of coastal desert closely on the west.

The coastal strip is cross-cut by a series of
rivers, some flowing only intermittently in
accordance with the highland rainy season.
Coast travelers are often struck by the juxta-
position of green, fertile river valleys with the
adjacent monochromatic desert landscape;
one can literally stand with one foot in the hot
desert sand and the other in verdant vegetation.

Early preceramic peoples may have collected
for consumption river valley plants that were
the precursors of such cultigens as squashes,
beans, and peppers. As an increased variety of
domesticated plants, including peanuts, cucum-
bers, and manioc, became available during the
later preceramic periods, cultivation efforts were
probably intensified. The location of many cot-
ton, preceramic sites (i.e., where cotton had been
introduced) such as Huarmey (in the Huarmey
River Valley) and El Paraiso (in the Chillon
River Valley), close to cultivatable land as well
as to the sea, indicates that the inhabitants of
these sites were well aware of the advantages
of multiple food source exploitation and that
they constructed their population center in
ways to maximize use of the ocean as well as
of fertile lands.

It is possible that some vegetal items were
cultivated away from the river valleys on the
lomas. About 3 to 8 km inland, these hills are dis-
tinguished from the desert by seasonal plant
blooming and growth made possible by moisture
precipitated from a fog blanket, or garua. This
phenomenon is characteristic of the six-month
Peruvian coastal winter, which is concurrent
with the highland summer. Moisture from the
garua provides virtually the only precipitation
for the entire coast since rain falls only about
once every 20 years. Moisture accumulation in
plant systems and blooming depend upon con-
densation on dormant plant cover. Cyclical varia-
tions in amount of garua precipitation result in
varying degrees of plant growth.

The over-exploitation of trees and shrubs for
fuel and construction has denuded most lomas,
except for some grass cover during the garua
months. Long-time residents of the coast de-
scribe the lomas as being covered with small
trees and bushes as recently as 30 years ago. Re-
forestation experiments at several ancient lomas
are allowing geographers, ecologists, and ar-

Lomas such as the
experimentally refor-
ested one in the hack-
ground were probably
a source of firewood and
building material for
ancient Peruvians.

chaeologists to see what lomas may have been
like prehistorically. Plant, animal, and bird life
combine to produce a charming, mist-filled
dreamland in precarious balance between cli-
matic factors and human needs.

The preceramic menu may have included
several lomas food items when in season. Many
plants that grew in the river valleys may have
also grown on the lomas hillsides alongside such
fruit trees as the mito. Small animals such as
foxes and rodents may have been hunted on
the lomas and in the river valleys by ancient
Peruvians. But judging from the low frequency
of land mammal bones recovered from prece-
ramic sites, it appears that the coastal terrestrial
environment afforded a minimal amount of
meat protein sources.

The importance of lomas as a prehistoric
food resource environmental zone is very uncer-
tain. Cyclical fluctuations oigarua intensity often
result in minimal blooming. In fact, in only one of
the last five years was there sufficient precipita-
tion to result in lush growth on the lomas. It is
very possible that the lomas were of greater value
to preceramic peoples as a resource for products
like grasses and woody shrubs used in mat and
housing construction and for fuel and as a graz-
ing area for highland animals during the high-
land dry season.

The seasonal blooming of the lomas occurs
during the highland dry season, when the high-
land food resources are at their lowest. Pre-
historic Peruvians may have followed llama

and guanaco herds in search of grazing areas
from the highlands down to the coast, where
they could graze on the grassy lomas slopes
during moist coastal winter months. Rem-
nants of ancient stone corrals used by pre-
historic herders still stand, and many of these
provide the foundations for corrals used by
modern herders during their seasonal residence
on the coast.

The Andes Mountains, descending so
sharply to the coast in a series of abruptly angular
trenches, were also an accessible environmental
zone to ancient coastal Peruvians. The steep val-
leys, easily traversable by sturdy prehistoric peo-
ples and their herds, were corridors linking food
resources and populations in the highlands and
coast. In fact, it is only 60 km from the early
coastal preceramic site of Paloma to the sierra
cave site of Tres Ventanas, dated to about 8,000
years ago. A significant number of shellfish re-
mains have been recovered from Tres Ventanas
and other highland sites, confirming that food
was transported from the coast up to the moun-
tains. Archaeological testimony is only of shell
transport from coast to sierra, but it is prob-
able that the reverse was true and that many
highland food products were included in the
coastal preceramic diet. Guinea pigs and ducks
may have been domesticated in the highlands
as early as 7,000 years ago. Grains such as the
high-protein quinoa and amaranth may have
been domesticated at about the same Hme. To-
gether with such tubers as potatoes (the time of

domestication of which remains uncertain),
these highland foods would have contributed
to a diversified and substantial protein base.
Highland transport of such foods to the coast in
exchange for preserved marine foods like dried
shellfish and salted fish must certainly have
played a role with the sea resources in the
development of early coastal civilization.

SEAFOOD

The seafood portion of the preceramic menu, list-
ing a large variety of items, was an extremely im-
portant resource base for coastal preceramic
groups. New information has led to a clearer
evaluation of the role that maritime resources
may have had in laying the foundation for that
developing Peruvian preceramic civilization
characterized by its monumental architecture.
In our travels, we have traversed the entire
coastline of Peru, visiting archaeological sites
and interviewing local inhabitants. We lived
for six months in the small fishing village of
San Bartolo, about 60 km south of Lima, where
we participated in fishing and in shellfish
gathering with the villagers and sampled many
of the same delicious seafood items that had

once contributed to the preceramic diet base.
In addition, as members of an archaeological
project excavating the early preceramic site
of Paloma, we had the opportunity to partake
in the uncovering of the lifeways of these ancient
Peruvians. The site has been dated to approxi-
mately 8,000 to 5,000 years ago and has a very
well preserved series of human, artifactual and
ecological remains.

The exceptional preservation of this and
other coastal sites is due to the aridity of the
coastal environment. Industrious native Peru-
vians, to the despair of archaeologists, have
taken advantage of the well preserved prod-
ucts of their distant ancestors. Looted pottery,
finely woven textiles, and delicately wrought
gold and silver objets d'art demand hand-
some prices on the international antiquities
market. Today, the discarded remains of hastily
looted excavations lie scattered over the desert
surface, mute testimony to decades of intensive
grave robbing.

Fortunately, the arid environment has also
preserved less aesthetic cultural aspects, namely
garbage middens. Middens, which are mounds
consisting of shells of edible mollusks and other
refuse marking the sites of prehistoric human

The importance of ma-
rine resources to the
daily life of ancient
Peruvians was shared
in their ideological
realm. St\/lized repre-
sentations of pelicans
and fish motifs at the
600-year-old capital of
the imperial Chimu
kingdom of Chan-Chan
on the north coast of
Peru illustrate the
weaving of marine
resource awareness
into architectural and
ideological design.

The3,500-meter-hiQh
Andean puno is me
natural habitat of the
llama. In search of
grazing areas during
the highland dry sea-
son, ancient Peruvians
may have traveled to
blooming coastal
lomas, following herds
of llama and guanaco.
Modern herders travel
to the coast during the
coastal winter season,
utilizing prehistoric
stone corrals on loma
hillsides to house their
herds after grazing.

habitation, are easily identified by the scattering
of white shell fragments in the sandy Peruvian
desert. Midden remains hold important clues of
prehistoric diet and the methods employed to
obtain those foodstuffs. The composition of pre-
cotton, preceramic middens like those at Paloma
as well as later cotton, preceramic middens such
as those as Huaca Prieta and Alto Salaverry,
indicate that the sea was used extensively for
a variety of food sources throughout the
preceramic periods.

These food sources are of three general
types: fish, shellfish, and sea mammal. Our re-
search has evaluated each of these categories in
terms of ease of acquisition, transport to habita-
tion sites, processing techniques for consump-
tion, preservation methods for storage, and
relative importance in the preceramic diet.

The deep Peruvian coastal waters constitute
perhaps the richest marine biome in the entire
world. The Peru Current, sweeping up from cold
southern Antarctic waters, closely parallels the
Peruvian shoreline because of the abrupt incline
of the Andes from the ocean floor. A phenom-
enon called upwelling, produced by a combi-
nation of wind and ocean movements, brings
colder, plankton-bearing, deeper water closer
to the ocean surface, thus creating a rich
feeding ground for anchovies and progres-

sively larger fish and sea mammals such as
seals and whales. The proximity of this feeding
ground to the ocean surface and to the shore-
line allowed it to be exploited extensively by
prehistoric human populations.

Peru leads the world in anchovy fishmeal
production; used primarily as a protein-rich
animal feed, it is exported worldwide. The con-
sequences of decades of intensive anchovy
exploitation have induced the present Peru-
vian government to implement and enforce
legislation limiting the annual tonnage of
anchovies harvested.

The presence of numerous bone and shell
fishhooks, along with identifiable fish remains,
in preceramic middens, confirm the listing of a
variety of fish dishes in the preceramic food
base. Over 250 species of fish inhabit the rich
feeding grounds of the coastal waters. It is
questionable whether the technological capa-
bilities of the earliest fishermen permitted
extensive exploitation of this abundant fish
population. Cotton used in durable fishing nets
was not domesticated until approximately 4,500
years ago. It is possible that, prior to the do-
mestication of cotton, nets were made from
grass fibers collected from river valleys and
blooming lomas.

The ancient inhabitants of the precotton.

preceramic site of Paloma crafted fine grass nets
for use as body and head coverings, so we know
that the ability to make nets antedated by
thousands of years the domestication of cotton.
Fine bone needles and tools found in association
with preceramic burials and houses may have
been used for net-making. Gourds, a common
find in early preceramic middens, may have been
used as net floats. Although grass fishing nets
have never been recovered from preceramic mid-
dens, it is possible that their exposure to the
ocean waters may have hastened their decom-
position. Nets may also have been discarded on
the beach rather than at the occupation site, as
much as 5 km away.

It is also questionable whether ancient Peru-
vians used boats to fish in richer waters further
from shore. Like nets, remains of boats have not
been found in early preceramic sites. Ancient
Peruvians may have used tule reeds growing in
river valleys to construct boats similar to those
used today by crab fishermen of the town of
Huanchaco, near the archaeological site of
Chan-Chan on the north coast of Peru. Tule
boats, known as caballitos de tortora (reed
ponies), are known archaeologically through
2,000-year-old Moche ceramic depiction. Tule
reeds have been found in preceramic middens,
and it is entirely possible that early Peruvians
utilized them much as they are used today. The
absence of boat remains in the archaeological
record could be for the same reasons affecting
the preservation of fishing nets.

Anchovies. Although it is uncertain whether
nets and seaworthy fishing craft were used, it is
clear that fish, specifically anchovies, were a sub-
stantial protein source to preceramic Peruvians.
Excavations at Paloma revealed that anchovy
fishmeal comprised the majority of the fish re-
mains uncovered at the site. The significance
of anchovies in the preceramic diet as well
as the presence of numerous grinding stones
found in the remains of Paloma houses — an
incongruity in a supposedly preagricultural
society — was puzzling. Fortunately, we wit-
nessed a remarkable phenomenon during
our residence in San Bartolo that helped us
to fit the puzzle pieces together:

For two days and two nights, thousands
upon thousands of anchovies followed by the
larger jurel, a fish similar to mackerel, "leaped"
onto the shore, beaching themselves. The
townspeople told us that such fishruns occur
about four times during the course of the year.
Villagers left countless anchovies to rot on the
beach, in favor of the tastier jurels which were
easily and rapidly caught from rocky jetties with
a simple hook and line.

Periodic prehistoric anchovy runs would

have enabled ancient Peruvians to gather great
amounts of anchovies and other fish without the
benefit of nets and fishing craft. The periodic oc-
currence of fishruns not induced by man has
been documented ethnographically for South
and Central America. During one of the days of
the anchovy run, we fished offshore with a net.
The number of fish obtained (over two wheelbar-
rows full), in addition to a bucket of crab, was
certainly in excess of ordinary hauls and empha-
sized the immense amount of protein that could
be easily acquired during periodic fishruns.

It appears that the ancient Palomans uti-
lized bountiful anchovy runs by converting the
fresh fish into preservable fishmeal. Processing
probably involved the following steps: First,
the fish may have been placed on the ground
or hung in net bags for a few days. In the lat-
ter case, oil could be collected as the fish des-
sicated. Modern Peruvians use fish oil as a soup
base and the oil may have been used in much
the same manner prehistorically. Once dried,
the fish may have been ground into meal in
grinding stones. The remaining oil in the fish
would reduce friction, thus explaining a lack
of wear and polish on the Paloma grinding
stones. The meal was probably dried for a few
more days to prevent spoilage.

Anchovy strati graphic lenses (j.e., archaeo-
logical deposits, lens-shaped in cross section) at
Paloma were initially interpreted as the residue
of fishmeal production. However, the absence
of foreign elements such as flies, indicate that
these deposits were primary storage. One might
imagine coastal villagers laboring night and day
during fishruns to procure and process as many
anchovies and other fish as possible. It appears
that these villagers stored the fishmeal produced
for future use by heaping it on the ground then
covering it with earth to prevent its exposure to
the garua and pests. The relative ease of acquisi-
tion and processing would probably have made
anchovies one of the least expensive items
on the preceramic menu as well as a staple
during food crises.

Whales. The chance witnessing of the fishrun
helped us to fit other pieces of the puzzle of the
preceramic diet together. Whale bones are found
in almost all Peruvian coastal preceramic mid-
dens and were occasionally used as housing con-
struction material and even perhaps as sacred
chairs for important members of the group.
Whale strandings along the Pacific shores of the
Americas occur today and are documented pre-
historically for the Old World through artistic
depiction. Ethnohistorical accounts relate the
gathering of groups of coastal peoples and
the complex social rituals called for at the
occurrence of a whale stranding. The reason

R. Benfer, co-principal

investigator of the

Paloma excavations,

photographs the well

presented mat and

grass covering of an

ancient Paloma hiirial.

The grass, locally

knoion as junco, was

pnobably collected from

the Chika River Valley

7 hn away.

^n?v^i?r/;

whales beach themselves, singly or in groups,
remains a mystery. However, the phenomenon
of beaching explains the finding of whale bone
in the refuse of preceramic cultures that did
not have the technological capabilities to pursue
whales at sea. Is it possible that the preceramic
food base may have included whale meat and
other whale by-products, not just as a once-in-
a-lifetime treat, but as a relatively common,
if not regular, meal?

The stratigraphic cut
at a refuse midden of
the Tank site at Ancon
has an accumulation of
shellfish remains more
than 6 meters deep.
Shellfish were an im-
portant item on the
preceramic menu al-
though the preservahle
and bulky nature of
shell may skew the as-
sessment of preceramic
diet by inflating its pro-
tein ana caloric value.
Nevertheless, middens
such as these document
its common and stan-
dard placement in the
18 preceramic diet.

Baleen whales, so named for a whale bone in
place of teeth, allowing them to strain small
organisms from water, find the coastal cold
Peruvian waters attractive because of the rich
supply of plankton. Within the last 100 years,
the coastal Peruvian whale population has
been seriously decimated due to heavy whaling
operations. In fact, blue whales, weighing over
150 tons as adults, have vanished from coastal
Peruvian waters because of over-exploitation.
It is certain that the number of whales was
much higher prehistorically than today.
Whale beachings may have been as frequent as
anchovy runs. Although there is of course a
vast difference in the number of fish versus
the number of whales that beach themselves,
the amount of immediately accessible protein
represented may be roughly comparable if not
in favor of the whale. The few numbers of whale
bone found in preceramic middens may merely
be a reflection of the transport problem
involved, rather than of the frequency of
whale strandings. Historical documentation of
stranded whales on the coast of South America
tell of beaching-site butcherings, with as much
fresh meat as possible consumed during feasts
that lasted several days and were attended by
groups of coastal residents who came to share in
the food resource temporarily made available
in the huge body of a beached whale. A whale
carcass could not be processed for storage by
preceramic Peruvians and so was only a tem-
porary boon to their food supplies. Because

anchovy fishmeal, on the other hand, could be
preserved and stored for many months, pos-
sibly years, it was certainly a much greater and
an exceedingly more reliable protein source
than the immense whale.

To our knowledge, there has been no at-
tempt to calculate the caloric and protein value
represented by the preceramic presence of whale
bone. Adult whales range in size from about 10 to
30 meters (approx. 35 to 100 feet) long and up to
150 tons in weight, depending upon the species.
A section containing one adult vertebra repre-
sents at least one ton of edible meat. The total
amount of edible meat available from a stranded
whale is almost beyond comprehension.

Of course, the common listing of whale meat
and by-products on the preceramic menu cannot
be substantiated until a reliable estimation of the
frequency of whale strandings is made. Unfortu-
nately, there is very little information on the
subject. We have discussed the difficulties of
accurate assessment of such nonseasonal and,
apparently, randomly occurring phenomenon as
whale strandings with staff scientists of the Peru-
vian Institute of the Sea. One of these scientists
related an account of a whale stranding about 100
km south of Lima that had been told to her. A
man who had witnessed a whale beaching went
to Lima for a truck to transport sections of the
whale. On his return to the whale beaching site
two days later, all evidence of the whale had dis-
appeared. The event was not substantiated in
any standard way, and serves to illustrate the dif-
ficulty of obtaining reliable data on such a matter.

Seals, Sea Birds. The ecological interface be-
tween the land and the sea contributed other
food items. Ethongraphic literature on South
American Indians documents the hunting of
seals by hunters using heavy sticks to club the
seals to death while they slept on the beach. The
remains of seals and sea lions comprise a signifi-
cant part of preceramic middens and indicate
their important positions in the preceramic diet.

Sea birds roosting on rocky enclaves were
also subjected to surprise attacks by ancient
hunters. The consensus among native Peru-
vians, in our conversations with them, is a dis-
taste for sea birds as a food source even in times
of dire hunger. Perhaps ancient Peruvians felt
the same way and gave sea birds a lowly place
as a dietary source, thus explaining the low
proportion of bird bone in preceramic middens.

Shellfish. Conversely, shellfish were
awarded a much higher position. The Peruvian
coastal shellfish population is not only very high
in numbers but has an extremely wide range of
species. Opponents of the maritime foundation
of civilization theory argue that shellfish is a poor
protein source and could not have contributed

significantly to the dietary requirements of a
developing society. However, estimations of pro-
tein value have commonly been based on fresh-
water shellfish and are therefore not relevant
here. The vast amounts of shell refuse character-
izing precotton, preceramic middens indicate
that indeed they were consumed as a staple in
the earlier preceramic periods. The almost seven-
meter-deep accumulation of shell refuse at the
8,000-year-old Tank site at Ancon, north of Lima,
demonstrates the popularity and importance of
shellfish in the preceramic diet.

The decreased importance of shellfish in the
later cotton preceramic era is indicated by a re-
duction of the proportion of shellfish debris in
later middens. With the domestication of cotton
used in fishing net manufacture, fishing may
have replaced shellfish collecting as an inten-
sive daily subsistence activity to provide more
food for a growing population; however, shell-
fish certainly continued to be gathered and
consumed regularly. Human predation of
shellfish through thousands of years may also
have led to the reduction of the easily acces-
sible shellfish populations.

Many shellfish that served as a food re-
source for early preceramic peoples were easily
obtainable and did not require elaborate equip-
ment. Techniques of collection were probably
much the same as those used today by coastal
shellfish gatherers. Net bags or gourds were
used to carry the collected shellfish. It appears
that several of the gourds found at Paloma were
mended and possibly decorated, an indication of
their importance as containers prior to the inven-
tion of ceramics.

Choros (Aulacomia ater and chormytilus
chorus), types of mussel, are the most abundant
and popularly purchased shellfish in Peru today.

A cache of bone fish-
hooks am a coral
abrader found in exca-
vations of a house
at Paloma. Preceramic
fishermen tied strings
made from grass fibers
around bone and
shell fishhooks to use
for fishing in the
nearby Pacific.

Fish is a popular

Peruvian dish, perhaps

reflecting a taste

acquired over 5,000

years ago.

The fishing village of
San Bartolo.

Their natural habitat ranges from about 30 me-
ters to 1 km offshore and between 20 to 35 meters
deep on a rocky sea floor. Their overwhelming
presence at such sites as Paloma indicates that
prehistorically choros occupied habitats closer to
shore. All the choro divers that we have inter-
viewed speculate that shallow beds must have
been enormous in the preindustrial era. Large
choro beds are still occasionally found close to
shore but are rapidly decimated by divers. The

collection of choros simply involves raking them
from the sea floor into a net. Ancient Peruvians
may have floated bundles of tule reeds out to
deeper waters and used them to support the
weight of the shellfish catch.

The proportion of shellfish in middens at
different locations reflects differing shellfish
habitats in accordance with geographical char-
acteristics. For example, machas (Mesodesma
domacium) were not frequently consumed
by ancient Palomans although these clams com-
prise a major portion of the preceramic Chilca
middens 15 km from Paloma. The shoreline
closest to Chilca is a sandy expanse of beach
which is the natural habitat of machas. In con-
trast, the closest beach to Paloma is a rocky
inlet highly amenable to choro habitation.

Machas are found very easily by observing
their movement in sand and/or by wading in
water knee-deep and feeling for them with the
feet. They are harvested today with a hoelike
device. Prehistoric Peruvians may have used
a similar method by attaching a large shell
to a stick or simply collected them by hand.
The rarity of machas in the Paloma middens
and the rarity of choros in the Chilca middens
indicate that these early preceramic groups
had exclusive territories.

The relative frequency of almejas {Semele
saeida), a clam found in preceramic, precotton
middens, points to a lower frequency of con-
sumption, possibly because they are more
difficult to procure. Since they are attached to
rocks, they must be pried loose with a sharp
implement. Nonetheless, ancient Peruvians
enjoyed large, very tasty almejas on a regular if
not daily basis.

Pectens (Pecten purpuratus) are considered
a shellfish delicacy in Peru and accordingly are
relatively high priced. Harvesting techniques are
the same as those employed for choros. Along
with almejas, machas, and choros, pectens are
only the most commonly seen shellfish along the
coast of Peru. An amazing number of species in-
habiting the coastal waters lend themselves to a
very tasty and diversified seafood cuisine. The
range of species recovered from preceramic
middens along the coast bear witness to the
fact that many other shellfish types, including
snails, were commonly consumed foods in the
preceramic periods.

Shellfish may have been dried for later con-
sumption by heating over an open fire. Our own
experiments confirm that shellfish can be pre-
served for at least three days by removal of the
moisture through heating on an open hearth.
Using plants, specifically achupalla and cac-
tus, gathered from the lomas for fuel, we
conducted a series of tests involving roasting
choros over an open fire. A minimum of 110
grams (4 oz.) of achupalla and 450 grams (1 lb.)
of cactus was necessary to adequately cook a
dozen choros. The amount of fuel required
may point to the processes involved in pre-
historic denudation of the lomas.

Shellfish provided an important material re-
source to early preceramic peoples as well. The
noted archaeologist Junius Bird found in his ex-
cavations at the preceramic, precotton site of
Quiani, Chile, that the earliest inhabitants of
Quiani used shells to the exclusion of all other
material in making fishhooks. It appears that the
same is true for the early Palomans, who only
later used bone as a manufacturing material for
fishhooks. Shell as a material source is durable
and produces a fine, sharp edge, making it ideal
for knives and scrapers. Many tools made from
shell, an easily acquired material, have been re-
covered from preceramic middens. In addition,
jewelry made from shell was raised to the level of
a fine art in the coastal cultures. Even as far back
as the early preceramic, individuals utilized
shells to make tubular and circular beads and
pendants of various shapes and sizes for decora-
tive purposes. Burials excavated at the site of
Paloma show that ornamental shell pieces were
worn as collars and bracelets.

Supplementing the clues provided by the
well preserved remains of preceramic meals and
the tools and equipment used to procure those
meals, studies of the human remains of the
preceramic site occupants are helpful in clearing
our blurry picture of the preceramic coastal die-
tary base. The high incidence of exaggerated
lower back osteoarthritis among prehistoric
Peruvians indicates that these individuals parti-
cipated in activities that were highly stressful to
the lower back. The daily transport of net bags
and gourds filled with harvested shellfish on
one's back from the collection areas to the occu-
pation site would certainly have contributed to, if
not caused, a painful arthritic condition.

THE DENIM. RECORD

A diet high in shellfish and other seafood is con-
sidered to be highly abrasive to teeth. The pre-
ceramic menu included daily quantities of sand

The shar-ply descending^
crevices of the geologi-
cally young Andes
Mountains were likely
the pathways of ancient
Peruvians traveling to
the coast and hack again
to the sierra.

Caballitos, "little
ponies" are used in
the town ofHuanchaco,
20 km north ofTrujillo,
for crabbing today. Tule
reeds, from whim such
boats are made, have
been identified in
coastal preceramic
middens. Ancient
Peruvians may have
used similar water-
craft to collect shellfish
and to fish in deeper
offshore waters.

A diet high in abrasive

contents such as that

of shellfish and anchovy

fishmeal has resulted

in the complete removal

of the eiwmel surface

of this maxillary first

molar and loss of

much of the enamel

surface of its adjacent

partners of this former

22 Paloma resident.

wT ' .

Ikib^K

and minute fishbone, unavoidable in the con-
sumption of shellfish and anchovy fishmeal.
Preceramic skeletons show extreme tooth wear
as a result of a highly abrasive diet.

Abscesses can result from extreme tooth
wear, as well as from periodontal disease and
cavities. An infection at the tooth root will often
spread, destroying the surrounding bone if it re-
mains untreated. Without the benefits of modern
medicine, abscesses spreading to other areas of
the body can result in death.

S^.^i-

The close examination of teeth can be very
important in evaluating the dietary health of
prehistoric peoples. Macroscopic defects such
as enamel hypoplasia, which appear as readily
visible linear grooves or pits, indicate certain
health stressful conditions suffered by the indi-
vidual. These conditions may result from dis-
ease, metabolic disturbances, or malnutrition.
The preceramic diet was subjected to periodic
food shortages, perhaps causing the devel-
opment of enamel hypoplasia in many pre-
ceramic individuals.

EL NINO

Periodic extreme food shortages were due to a
natural, disastrous event known as EI Nino
("the child") so named because of its com-
mon appearance during the Christmas season
roughly every 20 to 25 years. (See "El Nino, the
Catastrophic Flooding of Coastal Peru," in Bul-
letin, July-August and September, 1979.) El Nifio
is a warm-water intrusion from the north into the
Peru Current, diminishing the upwelling of
colder deeper water. Elevated water tempera-
tures kill off the plankton, initiating a calamitous
sequence of events for the rest of the plankton-
dependent trophic chain. The equatorial warm
water thrust into the colder Peru Current dis-
turbs the climatic equilibrium and periodically
results in torrential rainstorms causing extensive
flooding on the coastal desert strip. Flooding of
cultivated land, along with diminished sea re-
sources, as a result of particularly intense El Ni-
hos, results in drastic food shortages today. The
prehistoric consequences must have been even
more disastrous. Yet, preceramic peoples man-
aged to develop and flourish as a civilization
through such cyclical food shortages. To combat
periods of food crisis, the preceramic food re-

source base included a variety of storeable items
such as anchovy fishmeal and vegetal products
that could be accumulated well in advance and
stored in mass quantities.

The innovation of permanent building facili-
ties like those found at the 4,000-year-old
El Paraiso is indicative of the implementation
of permanent and increasingly larger storage
facilities. Only one building was excavated at
El Paraiso by Frederic Engel, an archaeologist
well known for his preceramic discoveries at
such sites as Paracas, Asis, and Paloma. This
building was excavated because it was one
of the smallest structures visible and its loca-
tion on high ground prevented its being totally
embedded in silt carried by the Chillon River.
This 35-room building, we believe, was a stor-
age facility, although negligible artifactual
remains were found during excavation in
support of this conclusion.

The excavated building at El Paraiso is in an
easily defensible location abutting the hillsides of
a small valley. It is likely that during extended pe-
riods of food crises, as after a devasting El Nifio,
sites such as EI Paraiso would have been threat-
ened by groups desperate for foodstuffs. The lo-
cation of the El Paraiso storage facility reflects the

high priority of defensibility given to stored food
supplies.

The cotton preceramic construction of large,
permanent, and defensible storage facilities sug-
gests several conclusions. First, the populations
responsible for the construction of such sites as
El Paraiso had enough person-power to concen-
trate on architectural endeavors as well as to sup-
port the population with their dietary needs.
Secondly, the construction of elaborate stone
architecture and the procurement of mass
quantities of storeable foods points to a stiatified
level of society with leaders directing large
numbers of workers. Thirdly, the preceramic
food base definitely included those large store-
able quantities of food necessary to provide the
basis of civilization development.

It appears that the preceramic menu not
only provided a steady food base, but one that
was highly diversified and sayory. This was
possible because of the prehistoric multiple
exploitation of land as well as sea resources.
Perhaps the diversified cuisine was an im-
portant factor in the subsequent civilization
growth and reflected a cultural predisposition
for experimentation and utilization of all
available resources. D

A close look at the only
entrance to what is be-
lieved to have been a
storage facility. The
4,000-year-olci build-
ing is located on the up-
slope of the river valley
and built on a series of
platforms, perhaps to
guard stored fishmeal
and other food products
against periodic flood-
ing and raids by hun-
gry preceramic groups.

Morpho granadensis,
male

MORPHO

The Jewel of Tropical Rain Forests

br Allen M. Young
Photos courtesy of the author

T' he magnificent morpho butterflies of the
Amazon rain forest stunned the early natu-
ralists from Europe who saw them for the first
time more than two centuries ago. Perhaps
nowhere outside the tropical rain forests of
Central and South America, where they number
some 40 species, have large butterflies of such
awesome beauty been found. The name "mor-
pho" is an alternate name for Aphrodite, the
ancient Greek goddess of wisdom and beauty.
The upper sides of their expansive, brittle
wings have a glistening, iridescent blue sheen.
The iridescence, ranging from vivid, almost
mirrorlike dazzling blue to deep purple and
brown, is due to complex arrangements of
microscopic grooves on the tiny, shingled scales,
which absorb all but the blue wavelengths of
daylight. In this respect, the morpho's blue
differs from other butterfly colors, which are
due to pigment. Throughout the animal king-

dom, as a matter of fact, blue coloration is seldom
due to pigment.

The intensity of the blue reflection depends
on the angle of wing to sunlight. When the
sunlight is almost perpendicular to the wing
surface, the brightness of the blue is greatest;
further from the perpendicular, the wing ap-
pears less blue and more brown. Because these
magnificent butterflies, so popular with collec-
tors (as well as makers of inlaid table tops, coast-
ers, wall decorations, and a multitude of curios),
have long been zealously sought out, wing ma-
terial has also been in ample supply for biologists
investigating the phenomenon of iridescence.

The eyes of the butterfly are very sensitive
to blue color; male morphos, for example, will

Allen M. Young is curator and head of the Invertebrate Zool-
ogy Section of ttie Milwaukee Public Museum.

often pursue a blue workshirt for some distance.
Thus, the blue may function in courtship from a
distance, allowing cruising butterflies to locate
each other and initiate the early stages of court-
ship if the signals and partners are right.
In some species only the males are blue, the
females being orange and brown. Such sexual
dimorphism suggests a lower price tag placed
on males; females, being egg-bearers, are
less expendable and therefore more cryp-
tically colored.

In morpho species with sexes of similar
appearance, flash communication from a dis-
tance may bring potential mates together; other
cues then take over in determining species rec-
ognition. But the attractiveness of the color is
also a disadvantage: some insectivorous birds
are remarkably agile at catching the butterflies
on the wing. I have found heaps of wings of
morpho butterflies in forests. Even so, some of
the more iridescent species, by erratic flight
patterns, may evade the birds. Slow-motion
photography of a morpho in flight shows the
insect literally dropping from sight against the
forest backdrop. This can occur when the wings
close, thus concealing the iridescence, or when,
for a fraction of a second, the angles of the
wings to the sun are so oblique that the insect
becomes a brown smudge against the forest.

Some morpho species feed mainly at dusk.
As the butterflies are settled on the ground,
with wings closed, the large eyespotlike mark-
ings on the underside are enhanced by the rays
of sunlight filtering obliquely through the forest,
perhaps frightening off predators such as small
lizards roaming the forest litter.

Much more is known about the mechanism
of color in morphos than about their natural
history and biology. Gradually, however, we are
coming to understand the life cycle and natural
history of widespread species such as Morpho
peleides, a member of the achilles superspecies
complex believed to have evolved in the Amazon
rain forests. Peleides is one of two achilles species
that have extended into the humid and moist
mid-elevation and lowland forest zones of
Central America and Mexico. Peleides and its
near relative, Morpho granadensis, found in
Costa Rica's Caribbean or Atlantic watershed
rain forests, have been the subject of my inves-
tigation for the last twelve years.

The females of both species place their eggs
singly on the upper surfaces of mature leaves of
various trees, shrubs, and vines of the pea family
(Leguminosae) bordering climax rain forest
formations. I vividly remember my first sighting
of an ovipositing female peleides: Wading through
the clear, cold waters of a swift mountain stream,
I came to a section where the butterflies were

Developmental
stages of Morpho
peleides. Top: first
instar, which reaches
maximum length
of about 10 mm.
Middle: third instar,
which grows to about
40 mm. Bottom:
prepupa, about
70 mm (23/4") long. 25

FIEm
MUSEUM

Come with Us to Kenya!

Field Museum Tbur for Members

September 11-30
Tour Price: $3,195

per person, double occupancy
single supplement: $430

optional extension to the Seychelles Islands: $1435 additional

Itineraiy

Sept. 11: Depart Chicago via British Airways
for London.

Sept. 12: Depart London in the evening via
British Airways for Nairobi, Kenya.
Sept. 13: Nairobi. Earlv morning arrival in
Nairobi, where you will be met and taken to
the luxurious Norfolk Hotel. The rest of the
dav will be at leisure to relax, sleep, swim,
or wander around the shops.
Sept. 14: Mountain National Parks. Today
you are off on safari, driving past estates
and plantations to one of Kenya's gracious
up-country hotels, the Outspan. Enjoy a buffet
lunch here; this afternoon continue into the
Mountain National Parks — a deeply forested
area. Overnight will be at Mountain Lodge,
a "tree house" sitting high above a lighted
waterhole where )'ou watch the game.
Sept. 15: Samburu Game Reserve. Leaving
the park, continue along the valley and the
slopes of Mt. Kenya, descending into rugged
Northern Province. Pass through the
town of Isiolo where vour vehicle will be
surrounded by smiling Kenyans holding out
wares. Proceed to Samburu Game Reserve
and view game as vou drive to the lovely
Samburu Lodge. Later in the day, a game
drive.

Sept. IG: Samburu Game Reserve. A full day
of viewing giraflfe, zebra, and gerenuk.
Samburu is also a ver\' good park for elephant
and leopard. Evening at the lodge.
Sept. 17: Mt. Kenya. After breakfast, drive
to Mount Kenya Safari Club. Spend a restful
afternoon at this resort with its magnificent
gardens situated under Mt. Kenya.
Sept. 18: Mt. Kenya. "Mdng a picnic lunch,
there will be a full day visit to a ranch for a
rare opportunity to ^iew game on foot, or
vou may wish to stay behind to enjoy the
club's tennis, svWmming, horseback riding,
and trout fishing.

Sept. 19: Lake Naivasha. After breakfast,
drive towards Lake Naivasha. The bird lite
is spectacular. In the afternoon you can swim
in the pool or just relax.
Sept. 20: Masai Mara Game Reserve. This
morning you will dri\'e through the town of
26 Narok, the main Masai town where vou mav

wish to buy various wares. Proceed on to
Masai Mara Game Reserve and vour luxuiy
camp, Kichwa Tembo. You will have an
afternoon game drive, followed by cocktails
around the campfire and a gourmet dinner.
Sept. 21: Masai Mara Game Reser\'e. A full
day of game viewing. Game here is limitless.
The lion population is very large. Also
elephant, rhino, giraffe, hyena, cape buffalo,
hartebeeste, topi, impala, gazelle, and bird
life. Explore the river area, seeing crocodile
or hippos. There is also the opportunity of a
walking safari — where you will track
animals on foot . After a long day in the bush ,
enjoy drinks around the campfire and
dine in an elegance quite unexpected in
the wilderness.

Sept. 22: Nairobi. After breakfast drive back
to Nairobi, stopping en route for lunch at the
home of Mrs. Mitchell, a life-long resident
of Kenya, whose family began the first tea
plantation in Kenya in the 1920s.

Arrival back in Nairobi will be in the
mid-aftemoon and will be at leisure for your
own activities.

Sept. 23: Amboseli National Park. Off on
safari again, heading towards Amboseli
National Park, famous for its big game and
superb \'iew of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Following
lunch at the lodge, sfjend the afternoon game
viewing.

Sept. 24: Amboseli National Park. Following
early breakfast, a flill day of game viewing,
taking a picnic lunch with you.

Sept. 25: "Ravo National Park. This morning
continue flirther south to Tsavo National
Park. View game before arriving at Kilaguni
Lodge for lunch. From the lodge watch the
game wander in to drink at the waterhole.
This afternoon go out in search of the great
herds of elephant. You will also visit at
Mzima Springs where vou will xiew from an
underground tank hippo, crocodile and fish.
Late this afternoon arrive at Ngulia Ixxlge.

Sept. 26: Mombasa. This morning drive to
the luxurious Taita Hills Lodge, set among
beautiful gardens. Continue southwards to
Mombasa and the TVvo Fishes Hotel. Here
the balance of the day will be at leisure.

Sept. 27: Mombasa. A full day excursion to
Shimba Hills National Reserve, a forested
plateau. Later this afternoon return to the
comforts of your hotel.
Sept. 28: Mombasa. A full day at leisure to
relax on the beach, swim in the Indian
Ocean, or just soak up the tropical sun. There
is also the opportunity to hire a boat and
search for fish such as marlin, sailfish and
shark. If your preference is the underwater
world, you can go diving off the reef. This
evening wander dovni to a local hotel for a
cocktail or relax in the quiet of the Leopard
Beach Hotel.

Sept. 29: Nairobi. Morning flight back
to Nairobi, where day rooms have been
reserved at the Norfolk Hotel for vour
convenience. The balance of the day will
be at leisure for shopping and sightseeing.
Late evening transfer to the airport for flight
to London.

Sept. 30: Chicago. Arrive London early this
morning and transfer to day rooms at the
Sheraton Skyline Hotel. Your Chicago flight
viall leave early this afternoon, arriving in
Chicago later the same day.

An optional excursion to the Seychelles Islands
is available upon request. Operation of this
extension is contingent on the enrollment of
four or more people. The Seychelles, in the
heart of the Indian Ocean, are acclaimed as
one of the loveliest and most unspoiled
beauty spwts. They offer an atmosphere of
timelessness and tranquility. Please let us
know if you wish to have fiirther information.

Audrey Faden, a native of Kenya, will be our
guest lecturer. With her keen interest in
wildlife, conservation, and plant life, she is
a natural to lead our tour. Audrey served
as Officer in Charge of Education at the
National Museum of Kenya, Nairobi, and
was instrumental in organizing Wildlife
Clubs of Kenya. She served on the Field
Museum volunteer stafTand has done field
research and general collecting of plants in
Kenya.

For flirther information on this su-
perb tour, please call or write
Dorothy Roder, (312)322-8862.

unusually abundant. After about twenty min-
utes of wading chest-deep, I spotted the big
butterfly fluttering near a patch of mucuna vines
some fifteen meters away. I froze for a moment
before slowly approaching it, then had the thrill
of watching the morpho place up to twenty
eggs, each on a separate leaf of the same vine,
before it flew off. I had been at the right place at
the right time to witness an event that few biol-
ogists have been privileged to see.

The gaudily colored, hairy morpho cater-
pillars, which emerge from their eggs in about
12 days, are decorated in a rich patchwork of
yellows, reds, and brown. They spin thin silken
mats to anchor themselves to leaves of the food
plant, and take as long as three months to
complete their development.

Working high in the mountains of Costa Rica
and studying the caterpillars on tagged vines
in the wild around the clock, I found that
the caterpillars have a distinctive bimodal feed-
ing cycle, that is, with peak feeding at dawn
and dusk and very little feeding in between.
During the brighter daylight hours, the cater-
pillars remain immobile, hidden away behind

shaded leaves and branches of the food plant.
When disturbed, they often emit a pungent,
margerinelike odor from a tiny eversible gland
just in front of the forelegs. Nonetheless, many
caterpillars are victimized by parasitic wasps
and flies, which can effectively limit the morpho
populations in areas of rain forest.

The fully grown caterpillar then becomes
a very mobile green prepupa that wanders about
in search of a suitable site to pupate. The plump,
green pupa that finally forms is camouflaged
among leaves not too far from the food plant.
About three weeks later, the magnificent
butterfly emerges.

Some morpho species in Central America,
such as peleides, appear to be "fugitive" species
and colonize the secondary vegetation along
road cuts and rivers where the larval food plants
grow in abundance. The more ecologically re-
stricted granadensis and several other species are
more closely associated with the undisturbed
tropical rain forest habitat. The greatest threat
to the survival of these ecologically restricted
species is the wholesale destruction of tropical
rain forests in Central and South America. D

The subtle earth
tones of the lower
side of Morpho
peleides' wings are
in sharp contrast to
the dazzling irides-
cence of the upper
surface. The butter-
fly emerged from
its pupa only
minutes before. 27

PHILIPPINES

Continued from p. 10

was being checked in the down stream towns;
and that so far as Echague was concerned the
people there had been visited only with a severe
case of what he put in the plural of an ancient,
indelicate, but expressive monosyllable. Hence
all that is keeping me is the lack of rafts but
these I can get in time.

BENEDICT TO DORSEY, NOVEMBER 23, 1907

Laura Benedict, an ex-schoolteacher who had fallen in
love with anthropology and had taken courses in the
subject at Columbia, was a collector for the Museum
who paid her own way to the Philippines. Her semi-
amateur status may have kept Dorsey from putting
her on the payroll, but he let her use the Museum's
name and supervised her as closely as any of his
paid fieldworkers.
The three Ilongot men She seems to have done well among her Bagobo,

convicted of murdering one of the better known peoples of southwestern
^%ZlZpwJiZ", Mindanao, but to have had real problems with
Luzon. 1909. N3366i non-Bagobos. This, her last field letter, was written

from Santa Cruz in Davao Province, an area that had
recently seen a great expansion of American-owned
manila hemp plantations.

My dear Dr. Dorsey:

Recently I sent you two letters under dates of
November 9 and Nov. 11 or 12. They may never
have reached you; some of my mail has been
tampered with; four boxes of provisions
(amounting to $66.00) have been stolen en route;
other mysterious things have happened. Sadly
enough, it is (almost certainly) not natives, but
white settlers, who do these things. Were it not
for the Americans and French'^' people, life would
be happy indeed, among the Bagobo alone.

In one of those letters I told you that my
business of collecting ethnological objects among
the Bagobo, was passing under a monoply.
This fact becomes daily more apparent, and I
might almost say that a syndicate has been
formed, including several people, two of them
men who can practically control the market for
Bagobo treasures; one because he employs the
newly-moved Taluu people as his laborers; the
other, through his influence as owner of the
central American store for Bagobo trade,
where they owe large debts, and as the buyer
of their hemp. *^*

. . .While I am laboriously struggling over
the distinction between the ears and eyes of the
crocodile pattern in the textiles, or trying to
extract some information about a little line in
the carving of the tagau, my neighbor jumps on
his horse, sweeps through the hills, and loads
in Bagobo objects to the value of hundreds of
pesos, in two or three hours.

. . .1 would willingly cooperate with anybody
who came to me frankly with a wish to preserve
Bagobo records and Bagobo treaures. But it is
unfortunate that all this material should be
rushed out of the islands without my having
chance to see the native owners or the makers,
and get points which can never be ascertained
in America. Moreover, these men have not taken
a straight course: I have given them information,
help, friendship, and they are reciprocating
with a most contemptible tangle of deceit
and cunning.

. . .If they had only been honest with me,
I could plan much better. I often wonder what
they could have written you,*^' to explain their

1. The French wife (or mistress) of the American plan-
tation owner, Mr. John.

2. Mr. John raises part of his hemp in his own fields
but also buys part of it from Bagobo smallholders in
the neighborhood.

3. Benedict states elsewhere in this letter that she sus-
pects Mr. John of shipping his Bagobo material off to
Field Museum. In reality, as far as is known, he was
not in contact with this or any other museum.

sudden coup deforce. In the meantime, I ought
to be in the mountains, but if I leave my little
collection here, some harm would assuredly
come to it, and I cannot send it off till I get the
pattern names identified, which is a very slow
process. For example, every Bagobo woman
will say that a little design called tecco is just
"batucca binubuhud" (i.e. purely a conventional
or geometric pattern). After several months,
some girl will let slip that it imitates the move-
ment of a stream of water as it meanders along.
You see how 1 hate to let the things leave my
hands for good and all. Enclosed is the rubbing
of a tagau^*^ which will show you what I am
trying to do in one direction of the decorative
art. It is slow work, but deeply interesting.

. . .In closing this somewhat discursive letter
I have this to say: If I am correct in my belief
(toward which all appearances point) that all
these Bagobo things are being shipped to you,
on no account let Mr. John or his partners dis-
cover that I have written you of what is going
on. They think 1 do not know, and in that lies
my safety in being left free to carry on my studies
without futher molestation. Bum the letter
quietly that I wrote you about one of the agents
concerned in this business. If he got wind of
it, he would take some swift revenge that
might mean harm to my work. I do not know

4. An incised bamboo tube, probably for tobacco.

Ilongot women with
heavy loads. Nueva
Vizcaya Province,
Luzon. Photo by
William Jones, 1908.
N23375

Ilonsot men in mock
battle. Nueva Vizcaya
Province, Luzon.
^ Photo by William
"" Jones, 1908.N2966629

Bag of abaca cloth
ornamented with glass
and porcelain beads
and brass bells, from
Mindanao; Bagobo.
Lent by the National
Museum of Natural
History, Smithsonian
Institution, Washing-
ton, D.C. #387634.

Wooden food bowl

from northern Luzon;

Ifugao. 30.3 cm.

Collection of Field

Museum. mi3349.

,.-«"""'"""^^'^^/'

/'• 1 -4';:: ■•''•.'

? '^»Vo>'^^

r •'■.'••♦:. '- ,

"Slft^L. . ZT-*^^- asariliX.*-'

i? li "^ ^

what their grudge can be, nor why they
have assumed this hostile attitude. It came like
a bolt out of a clear sky, and there is no one
who can be trusted to speak on the matter/^'

COLE TO DORSEY, JULY 25, 1910

Cole returned to the Philippines for his second stint
there in 1909 and reached the Davao area, where
Benedict worked, in July, 1910. Benedict was in
Chicago at the time trying to sell her collection to
Dorsey for an amount which, Cole says in another
letter, would have been enough to buy large collections
from every tribe in Davao Province. In this letter he
focuses on another subject.

. . .You will be interested in knowing the straight
of Miss Benedict's visit here. She came full of

enthusiasm but evidently short of funds. It ap-
pears that she proceeded at once to overdo and
at the same time starve herself. In order to devote
all her energies to the work, she cut herself
away from the other Americans and lived in a
little hut by herself even when in the civilized
towns. In a few months she had ruined her
health and her mind could not stand the strain.
"The planters were plotting to raise prices on
her; later they tried to steal her collection, and
finally they had designs on her life. Two old
maids from Boston who were also studying the
Bagobos were trying to set the natives against
her and were also after her notes. After a time,
her condition was such that she was removed to
the hospital in Davao, but new troubles awaited
her here for her enemies attached electric bat-
teries to her bed so she could not sleep, and the
wife of the missionary sent her cake and sweet-
meats with poison in them. Finally acting on
Worcester's advice, the Captain of Constabulary
sent her to Manila where her sister took her in
charge."*'' The people she most feared are the
best people of the district and there seems to
have been not the slightest grounds for her
suspicions. All agree that she learned more of
the Bagobo language and got closer to the
people than any other person has done, and it
is also their opinion that her collection was
exceptionally fine.*'^*

5. The next letter clarifies this point.

1. It is not clear whom Cole is quoting, but Benedict's
paranoia is amply confirmed by her own letters.

2. She eventually sold her collection, which was
indeed very fine, to the American Museum of
Natural History.

Stitch-resist dyed men's trousers 0/ abaca cloth, from Mindanao; Kulaman. 58 cm. Collection of Field Museum. #129645.

Field Museum's Philippine Anthropological Collection

Although the Cummings Expeditions produced the bulk
X^of the Philippine material at Field Museum, many un-
related acquisitions have substantially strengthened the col-
lection over the years. The most important of these were
Dean C. Worcester's gift, sometime in the late 1920's, of
some 5,000 negatives of photographs of Philippine tribal
areas taken between 1900 and 1910, and Evett D. Hester's
1954-57 gift of some 400 pieces of excavated porcelain from
Philippine sites.

The history and nature of the museum's Philippine
collection are laid out in the tables on page 32. While the
tables speak for themselves, they point to several inter-
esting conclusions that have surprised even members of
the Museum staff.

First, Faye Cooper Cole was clearly the champion field
collector. Almost half of the total collection was acquired by
him personally, and his field notes and photographs form a
major part of the excellent documentation we have on
our Philippine material. While Dorsey's planning and

Cummings' generosity laid the groundwork, it is clear that
Cole is the one who made the collection what it is — one of
the two finest anywhere.

Second, the collection as listed in Table III has serious
gaps, especially as regards the peoples of western
Mindanao, of parts of the Sulu Islands, of Mindoro, of
northeastern Luzon, and — by far the most significant — of
the Christianized central Philippines. The Anthropology
Department hopes to begin filling some of these gaps in
future years.

Third, it will be noticed that Table II indicates virtually
no activity in the Philippines collections between the early
1920s and the early 1950s. This is not a peculiarity of Field
Museum's interests but reflects a very general phenom-
enon: between World War I and II, Americans in the
United States almost stopped thinking or writing about
the Philippines. Why this happened is not at all clear
(most historians of the Philippine-American relations do
not even comment on it), but it had major effects on many

TABLE I
Cummings Expedition Fieldworkers and Collections

Tinguian woman weaving, Abra Province, Luzon. Photo by
Faye Cooper Cole, 1907. N29143

fields, including anthropology. No more than a handful
of anthropologists set foot in the Philippines between
1910 and 1950, a period which was the golden age of so-
cial science in such nearby areas as Indonesia. The result
is that we are surprisingly ignorant about such subjects
as ethnic arts, oral literature, tribal religions, and even
the basic social organization of minority groups.
Although anthropological research by Americans and,
more importantly, by native Filipinos has revived in recent
years, the Philippines remain one of the anthropologically
least known areas of the world.

Worker and Data

Ethnic Groups

Objects

S. C. Simms, 1906

Ibaloi, Kankanay, Bontoc, Ifugao

1,236

W. Jones, 1906-8

Uongot

1,275

F. C. Cole, 1907-8

Tinguian, Kalinga, Isneg

2,489

S. C. Simms, 1909-10

Ifugao, Bontoc

1,201

F. C. Cole, 1909-11

Batak, Bukidnon, Bagobo, Bilaan,

Mandaya, Kulaman, Tagakaola, etc.

2,256

L. Benedict, 1906-8*

Bagobo

F. Gardner, 1909*

Mangyan

163

A. C.Jenks, 1904-6*

Bontoc and Maranao

214

*Fieldwork not financed by Field Museum but field-coUected material purchased with
Cummings funds.

TABLE II

Gifts and non-Cummings Purchases for

Field Museum Philippine Collections

Years

Acquisi-
tions

Objects

Years

Acquisi-
tions

Objects

Years

Acquisi-
tions

Objects

1893-97

1898-1902

1903-07

1908-12

1913-17

1918-22

0
1
7
8
4
5

0
213
361
219
138
20

1923-27
1928-32
1933-37
1938-42
1943-47
1948-52

0
0
0

1
0
0

0
0
0

1
0
0

1953-7

1958-62

1963-7

1968-72

1973-77

1978-82

5
3
4
12

412
46
35
10
21

126

TABLE in

Field Museum's Philippine Ethnographic

Collections, A Partial List

Place

Ethnic Group

Objects

Place

Ethnic Group

Objects

Luzon

Bontoc

777

Mindanao

Bagobo

517

Ibaloi

373

Biia-an

273

Ifugao

1168*

Bukidnon

663

Ilongot

1221

Kulaman

173

Isneg

174

Mandaya

415

Kankanay

239

Magindanao

Negrito

486

Manobo

Tinguian

1232

Moro (Mindanao
or Sulu)

103*

Tagalog and re-

lated groups

Subanun

Mindoro

Mangyan/Hanunoo

Tagakaolo

Visayas

Cebuano, etc.

24*

TiruravT'boli

Palawan

Batak

146

Sulu

Moro

20*

Tagbanua

Samal/Yakan
Tausug

4
18*

*Known to be an underestimate.

The Museum also has about 800 archaeological items from the Philippines.

Books Based on Field Museum
Collections or Expeditions

COLE, FAYE-COOPER

1912 Chinese Pottery in the Philippines.
Fieldiana, Anth. Ser. 12, 1.

42 pp and 22 pis

1913 Wild Tribes of the Davao District.
Fieldiana, Anth. Ser. 12, 2.

203 pp and 75 pis

1915 Traditions of the Tinguian.
Fieldiana, Anth. Ser. 14, 1.
226 pp

1922 The Tinguian.

Fieldiana, Anth. Ser. 14, 2.
489 pp and 83 pis

1956 The Bukidnon of Mindanao.

Fieldiana Anth. Ser. 46.
32 140 pp and 66 pis

COLE, MABEL COOK
1929

Savage Gentlemen

D. van Nostrand and Co., New York

249 pp

MANUEL, E. ARSENIO

1978 Toward an Inventory of Philippine Musical Instruments.
Asian Studies, Quezon City, Philippines.
82 pp

RIDEOUT, H. M.

1912 William Jones: Indian, Cowboy, American Scholar.
Stokes, New York.
100 pp

Donors to Field Museum Philippine Anthropological Collections

E. E. Ayer

F. Otley Beyer
Irene Brittingham
F. K. Crosby
Fred Evangelista
Louis Fuchs, Jr
Evett D. Hester
John Hoellen

Joel D. John
Kay Kimberley
Mrs. G. T. Langhorne
Charles A. H. McCauley
John and Withrow Meeker
Homer T. Merrill
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Anna M. Murphy

Louis Neubeyer

Albert H. Newman

Mary Ng

Luther Parker

Philippine National Museum

Hyman A. Pierce

Jessica Roza

Irving Spencer

Alex Spoehr
Wilhelm G. Solheim II
David G. Swanson
Antonia Thomas
Theodore van Zelst
Orry C. Waltz
Mrs. Philip Wrigley

Questions and Answers About the Philippine Show

Why is the exhibit being shown in Chicago?

Because there are 75,000 Filipino-Americans here, because
Chicago has a long history of interest in the Philippines,
and because it has unusual resources for backing up such a
show. No fevk'er than four major centers of Philippine
studies are located in the Chicago metropolitan area:
The University of Chicago, Northern Illinois University,
The Newberry Library, and Field Museum.

northern Philippines; bululs are much desired by collectors
of ethnic and "primitive" art. The best selection ever as-
sembled of southern Philippines weavings, the greatest of
the world's still-undiscovered textile art traditions.

How old are they?

50,000-50 years old. The bulk of the objects date to between
A.D. 1600 and 1900.

What's in the show?

Ancient gold objects and ceramics, historic Catholic sculp-
ture and paintings, wooden statues, steel swords, brass
jars, baskets, jewelry, costumes, and cloth — about 400
objects in all. All represent traditional Filipino rather than
American-European workmanship and taste.

Are the objects worth looking at?

Very much so. Each object in the exhibition was chosen
by experts as the finest example of its kind after search-
ing through most existing Philippines collections on
three continents.

Which objects are the most interesting?

The Manunggul Jar, a registered National Treasure of the
Republic of the Philippines and one of the most famous
artifacts ever excavated in that country. The Agusan Gold
Image, another very famous excavated artifact. A large and
fine selection of the bulul statues made by the Ifugaos of the

Where do the objects come from?

The collections of 16 museums and 13 private collec-
tions in the U.S., Europe, and the Philippines. About
20 percent comes from Field Museum's own excellent
Philippine collections.

Who made them?

Members of 25 ethnic groups ranging from simple head-
hunters to sophisticated city dwellers. The city dwellers
are not necessarily finer artists than the headhunters.
The groups with the largest number of objects in the
show are the Tagalog/Pampangans, the Ifugaos, the
Maranaos, and the Bagobos.

Who organized the show?

A group of experts from the University of Hawaii and
the University of California at Los Angeles, under the
sponsorship of the Museum of Cultural History of UCLA.
Field Museum was closely involved in the initial planning.

Mom fighting knife, Sulu Archipelago. 60 cm. Gift of Walker B. Davis. #115456

FIELD BRIEFS

Women's Board Members Mrs. Robert H. Malott (left) and Mrs. Charles S. Potter and Field
Museum President Willard L. Boyd were on hand recently to observe the burying of a time capsule
beneath the totem pole in front of the Field Museum. The 55-foot pole, carved by Northwest Coast
artist Norman Tail, was raised April 24 to celebrate the opening of "The Maritime Peoples of the
Arctic and Northwest Coast" exhibit. The Women's Board raised funds for the commissioning of
the pole and for activities during opening week of the exhibit. The time capsule contains names of
contributors, staff members, and volunteers wno worked on the exhibit, historical information
about Field Museum and the exhibit, as well as tools used by the artists who carved the pole.

Members' Nights October 7, 8

Terrell on Leave for 1982-83

John Terrell, associate curator of Oceanic
archaeology and ethnology, has accepted
an invitation by the State University of
New York at Binghamton to be a visiting
professor of anthropology for the 1982-83
academic year.

The Department of Anthropology at
Binghamton is well-known for research
work in human ecology. Terrell says this
invitation comes in recognition of his con-
tributions to Pacific Islands biogeography
and ecology — subjects featured in his
forthcoming book. Science and Prehistory in
the Pacific Islands.

EDITH FLEMING

"946 PLEASANT

OAK PARK ILL 60302

Jufyi August & September at Field Museum

July 16 through September 15

New Exhibits

"The People and Art of the Philippines." The largest special exhibi-
tion of traditional Filipino art to be held anywhere since 1905, with
loans from 16 museums and 14 private collections in the U.S.,
Europe, and the Philippines. The 420 objects were selected to
give a comprehensive \iew of the culture of this former Spanish
and then American colony, now a major Southeast Asian nation.
Special emphasis is on prehistoric ceramics and gold. Catholic
arts of Spanish colonial times, wood sculpture of the northern
Philippines, and the extraordinary textiles of the southern
Philippines. July 17 to December 31. Hall 26. Members' pre-
view: Friday, July 16 from 1 to 9 p.m.

3:30p.m. (seep. 11). A 2 p.m. lecture by Dr. BennetBronson, cura-
tor of Asian archeology and ethnology, will trace the history of
Field Museum's outstanding Philippine collection. Free uath
Museum admission. Sunday, July 18, from 1 p.m. to 4 p.m.

Family Features for Jlt,y and August. "Raku," a demonstration of
ancient Japanese pottery-making techniques. Saturday, July 17,
1 to 3 p.m.; Sundavjjuly 18, 11 a.m. to 1 p.m.

"Patterns on People." Tour various cultures to discover their
concepts of personal adornment, then experiment with adinkra
stamps on paper and Amazon rolling stamps to decorate your-
self 1:00 p.m., August 14 and 15.

Continuing Exliibits

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast." Field
Museum's newest permanent exhibit compares the ornate cul-
tures from the Pacific Northwest Coast with those of the austere
Eskimo societies. Prehistoric origins, history, food-gathering,
social life, spiritual beliefs, and art are shown through displavs,
dioramas, replicas, and films. It's an exhibit you'll return to
again and again.

"Exhibitions, Expeditions and Expositions." This photographic
essay offers the Wewer a behind-the scenes look at the construc-
tion of Field Museum's building and of some famous exhibits.
On display between Halls 3 and 10.

Hall of Ancient Egyptians. Field Museum's Egyptian exhibit, one
of the country's best, has been renovated. You mav now enter tomb
chapels built more than 4,000 years ago and a chapel replica on
loan from the Metropolitan. Other exhibits detail life in prehistoric
and early historic eras. Among the most compelling objects in the
older area are the mummies. Hall J.

New Programs

"A Philippine Afternoon." Celebrate Philippine traditions by sam-
pling its music, dance, and food at an afternoon of programs de-
signed to coordinate with "The People and Art of the Philippines"
exhibit. Highlights include dance performances at 1:30 p.m. and

Continuing Programs

Weekend Discovery Programs. New vistas of natural histor\' will be
opened to visitors attending these tours, demonstrations, and
films. Check Weekend Sheet available at Museum entrances for
complete schedule and program locations.

Highlight Tours. Special one-hour tours focus on the most popular
exhibits. Subjects include ancient Egyptian religion, ceremony and
art in Northwest Coast and Eskimo culture, American Indian
rituals, and animal behavior as shown in habitat displays.
Tours meet at North Information Booth, 1 p.m. Monday through
Thursdays, July 6 through August 31.

Dinosaur Days. Two fun-filled days of lectures, craft demonstra-
tions, and tours present the storv of dinosaurs, prehistoric mam-
mals, and armored fish. Make fossil rubbings of a flying pterosaur,
draw giant dinosaur murals, create floating specimens, play "Pin
the Bone on the Dinosaur," or mold dinosaurs out of clay. Saturday
and Sundav, September 11 and 12.

Museum Hours. Field Museum is ojjen daily, including Saturdavs
and Sundays, from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. The free day is Thursday.

Library Hours. During Julv, August, and September the library will
be open weekdavs from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Closed Labor Day, Sept. 6.
To visit the Museum Library, obtain a pass at the reception desk,
main floor.

Museum Telephone : (312) 922-9410.

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin

September 1982

Field Museum

of Natural History

Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd

Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten

Production Liaison: Kathryn

Laughlin

Calendar: Mary Cassai

Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

Board OF Trustees

Life Trustees

James J. O'Connor

Harry O. Bercher

chairman

Joseph N. Field

Mrs. T. Stanton Armour

Paul W. Goodrich

George R. Baker

Clifford C. Gregg

Robert O. Bass

Samuel Insull, Jr

Gorden Bent

WiUiam V. Kahler

Bowen Blair

William H. Mitchell

Willard L. Bovd

John M. Simpson

Stanton R. Cook

J. Howard Wood

O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.

Thomas E. Donnelley II

Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells

William L. Searle

Edward Byron Smith

Robert H. Strotz

John W. Sullivan

William G. Swartchild, Jr

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken

E. Leland Webber

Julian B. Wilkins

Blaine J. Yarrington

Egypt Tour for Members

January 7-26, 1983
$4,100, double occupancy

An unforgettable v\s\X to the land of the pharaohs, including
an 11-dav Nile cruise aboard a chartered yacht. The tour
leader is Del Nord, a distinguished U.S. Egyptologist. For de-
tails, write Field Museum Tours, Roose\'elt Road and Lake
Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605, or call Dorothy Roder at the
Tours office, 322-8862.

CONTENTS
September 1982
Volume 53, Number 8

Members' Nights: October 7 and 8

The Rawson-MacMillan Elxpedition of 1926

bv David M. Walsten

Dinosaur Days

September 12 and 13

Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization

bvAlan L. Kolata, \isiting assistant curator,

Andean archaeolog,' 13

Fijlh Annual Festival of Anthropology on Film

September 25 and 26 19

Members' Jbur to Baja California and the

Sea of Cortex 29

Latino Images: The Other Americas

bv Donald McVicker and Anthony Pfeiffer, Learning Museum
project coordinator 30

Museum Views... and Viewpoints

sketches bv Marion Pahl

We're Here

a reminiscence bv WiUiam Burger, chairman of the
Department of Botany 33

Our Environment

Field Briefs

September and October at Field Museum

Calendar of coming events 39

COVER

Monolithic gateway to Kalasasaya, principal temple of the ancient
Andean city of Tiwanaku. See ""Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean
Ciiilization," p. 13. Photo by Alan L. Kolata.

Field Museum of Natural Hstory Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
Julv/August issue, bv Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Uke Sliore Drive,
Chicago, n. 60605, Subscripttons; $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarUy reflect the polio of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone (312) 922-9410 Postmaster: Please send from 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History,
Roosevelt Road at Uke Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-D703. Second class postage
paid at Chicago, 11.

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
1982 HOLIDAY CARD

The Women's Board of Field Museum
is pleased to announce that a special
holiday card will be available £or your
1982 holiday greetings.

The first in a collector's series to be
offered, this beautiful full-color scene
is adapted from one of the treasures in
the Museum's Mary W. Runnells
Rare Book Room.

Printed on fine quality ivory paper stock
with matching envelope, the card may
be ordered with the following greeting:
"Warmest wishes for the holiday season"
printed in a festive forest green. For
those who prefer to use the card for
personal notes or for invitations, it is
available without the greeting.

Proceeds from the sale of the card will
benefit Field Museum.

Actual size: 6-5/8" x 5-1/8"
Order form and price schedule on reverse side.

lour oraer benelits l*ielcl iviuseum. Ihank you I

PRICE LIST

50 CARDS

75 CARDS

100 CARDS

EACH ADDED
25 CARDS

*\VitIi name imprint (one line)

$24.00

$34.50

$45.00

$11.25

Without name imprint

20.00

30.00

40.00

10.00

\V'ithout name or greeting

20.00

30.00

40.00

10.00

*Optional printed envelope (2 lines)

5.75

6.25

6.75

.75

*Add $1.00 per order tor extra line printed on card or envelope. Printed orders not accepted after December 1.
Please allow four weeks for delivery. For information: (312) 322-8870.

I would like to order:

holiday cards, with name

holiday cards, without name

plain cards, no greeting

Please imprint name on card as follows:

Please imprint address on envelope as follows:

Add for shipping and handling:

50 to 100 cards $2.00
100 to 300 cards $3.00
over 300 cards $4.00

Card total:
Sales tax (7%):
Printed envelopes:
Shipping and handling:
Check enclosed for:

Please return check payable to Field Museum

and order to:

Holiday Cards

Field Museum of Natural History

Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive

Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496

The proceeds from the sale of this holiday card benefit Field Museum and one-half of the purchase price is tax
deductible. We are unable to extend the usual 10% discount to Museum members.

Ship to:

Name

Address -
City.

State .

Daytime Telephone

Zip.

Entertainment for Members' Nights will feature the
Natyakalalayam School performing dances from India,
under the direction of Hema Rajagopalan. These young
girls in native costumes perform both pure and expres-
sional dances which are as graceful as they are intricate.
Well-received at our Asia festival, they are sure to delight
both youngsters and adults.

Appearing from Chicago's Degerberg Academy will
be Nate Defensor and Jim Wauchon, who will demon-
strate Philippine martial arts. Sticks, knives, and swords
as well as the open hand are used in these arts, which
have been described as the most highly developed wea-
pons arts in the world. Passed from generation to gener-
ation, they were banned in the Philippines 400 years ago
but are today enjoying renewed popularity. The demon-
stration will keep you spellbound!

Other evening highlights include:
Ground Floor: Serpent Slide Show; Miniature Monsters of
the Deep; Make Your Own Family Totem Pole; Animal
Camouflage; Collection Showcase on Slides: Malvina
Hoffman and Indian Art of the Northwest Coast.
First Floor: Totem Poles, Masks, and Shamans; Pin the
Bone on the Dino; In Search of Strange and Unusual Pets;

Your Name in the Egyptian ABC's.

Second Floor: Members' Preview of "The Last and First

Eskimos" (a photographic exhibit) ; "The People and Art

of the Philippines," our current traveling exhibit.

Third Floor: Architectural Curiosities; Art, Death and

Life in New Ireland; Make Your Own Fossil Fish; Scanning

Electron Microscope: Vision into the World of the Tiny;

Plants of the Bible.

Fourth Floor: Various Aspects of Exhibit and Graphic

Design; Silk-Screening Demonstration; Exhibit Production.

Free parking is available in the north Museum lot
and the Soldier Field lot. Or use the free round-trip charter
bus service betw^een the Loop and the Museum's south
entrance. These CT^ buses marked Field Museum will
originate at the Canal Street entrance of Union Station
and stop at the Canal Street entrance of Northwestern
Station, Washington and State, Washington and Michigan,
Adams and Michigan, and Balbo and Michigan. Buses
will run circuits beginning at 5:45 p.m. and continue at
15-minute intervals until the museum closes. (Buses will
travel to the train stations until the departure of the last
train. Please check your train schedule for the exact times.)

Reasonably priced dinners and snacks will be
available in the Museum food service area from 6:00
to 8:00 p.m.

To achieve a more even distribution of visitors, we
suggest you follow this alphabetical schedule:
A through L: Thursday, October 7
M through Z: Friday, October 8

Admittance will be by invitation, so please retain
your Members' Night invitation and present it at the
door for admittance for you and your family.

We look forward to seeing you! 3

«;■▼■.» 1 • •# . AAA •■'»»*'»^. . .. .. *».».T^,.

.* ••

T/ie schooner

Bowdoin in Nain,

Labrador, harbor.

The Rawson-MacMillan
Subarctic Expedition of 1926

Field Museum's first expedition into the Far North

hv David M. Walsten

Frederick H. Rawson,
Sr. sponsored the 1926
expedition as well as a
second one to the same
general region in
1927-28. He served as a
Museum trustee from
4 1927 to 1935.

"MacMillan expedition," wired Field Museum
president Stanley Field on April 15, 1926, "con-
templates visiting Labrador, Greenland, Baffin
Land to investigate pre-Columbian Norse ruins,
make general collections in ethnology, zoology
and geology, which would result in adequate
representation of the life of the Eskimo and
arctic mammals, birds, fishes, minerals, these
being deficient in Field Museum at present ....
Desire to emphasize my great personal delight
and satisfaction if you will accept this invitaHon
to become sponsor of the expedition and bene-
factor of the Museum'.'

The recipient of the telegram, Frederick H.
Rawson, Sr. (on vacation in Florida), wired
back: "As an evidence of my regard for high
position Museum has reached as an educational
center as well as housing priceless collections
most of which has come about through your
great executive management and aid will be
glad to sponsor MacMillan expedition. ..."

As the result of Rawson's benefachon. Field
Museum's first collecting venture into the far

North was on its way to becoming a reality. Two
expeditions were actually to take place, acquiring
more than 9,000 specimens for the Museum's
collections.* Perhaps equally important were
the observations Field Museum personnel were
able to make in regions that had seldom or never
before been visited by scientists.

At the time of his decision to underwrite
the expedihon, Frederick Holbrook Rawson
(1872-1937) was chairman of the board of the
Union Trust Company of Chicago. In 1927 he
was named a trustee of the Field Museum, serv-
ing in that post until 1935. After Union Trust's
merger with the First National Bank of Chicago,
Rawson became First National's board chair-
man. Subsequently he founded and was chair-
man of the board of the Mercantile Trust and
Savings Bank.

Over a period of nearly half a century,
expedition leader Donald Baxter MacMillan
(1874-1970) accompanied or led numerous expe-
ditions to Arctic and subarctic regions, begin-
ning with the Peary Arctic Club Expedition of
1908-09. His final trip to the Arctic was in 1957
at the age of 82.

The Field Museum Annual Report for 1926
summarized the expedition's itinerary:

"The expedition sailed from Wiscasset,
Maine, June 19, in Commander MacMillan's
auxiliary schooner "Bowdoin," accompanied by

*Rawson was also sponsor of the 1929 Rawson-Field
Museum Ethnological Expedition to West Africa.

The schooner Sachem,
shown off Newfound-
land, accompanied the
Bowdoin.

Commander Rowe B. Metcalf's auxiliary
schooner "Sachem." Along the coast of Maine
stops were made at various ports, the last being
Bar Harbor. On June 28, they arrived at Sydney,
Nova Scotia, from there sailing to Curling near
the head of Bay Island, Newfoundland.

"Battle Harbor, their first port in Labrador,
was reached July 3, and there a delay of three
days was caused by ice and weather conditions.
While sailing northward in the more open waters
near the barren rocky coast, eleven stops of
varying length were made in Labrador. On July
20, they arrived at Cape Mugford where, the
conditions appearing favorable, they changed

Aboard the Bowdoin
were (I. tor): Ralph
Robinson, mate;
Ashley Hine, taxider-
mist; Kennett Rawson,
boatswain; Paul McGee,
radio operator; John
Janes, engineer; Alfred
C. Weed, ichthyologist;
Donald B. MacMillan,
captain and owner;
Dick Salman, second
mate; Dr. Thomas,
physician; William
Boogar, cook; and
Joseph N. Field, cabin
boy. Rawson, then 15,
is today a New York
publishing company
executive; Field, a Field
Museum trustee since
1934, lives in California.

Left: Stanley Field,
Field Museum presi-
dent 1908-64. Right:
D. C. Davies, director
of Field Museum
1921-28

their course, passed through the ice pack off the
coast of Labrador and in a few hours, were in
the open waters and headed for Greenland.

"The first landing place in Greenland was
at a little bay south of Sukkertoppen. Sailing
northward, they visited Sukkertoppen, Akpa-
miut. South Stromfjord and Simuitak. About
noon of August 1 they arrived at Godhavn,
Disko Island, the farthest point north reached
by the expedition, and on the following day
they began to sail homeward. On the return
trip, along the west coast of Greenland, they
stopped at Egedesminde, Holstenborg, and
Sukkertoppen, but at the last mentioned place
only long enough to load oil before sailing for
Baffin Land.

"Reaching Baffin Land in a fog, they an-
chored in a little harbor behind Cape Haven and
as soon as they were able to locate their position,
August 15, they sailed for Labrador. A number
of ports were again visited along the coast of
Labrador as well as in Nova Scotia and Maine,

Frederick Rawson's

yacht Gadfly motored

up to Wiscasset to see

6 the expedition off.

and on September 11, twelve weeks after they
started northward, the expedition returned to
Wiscasset, Maine."

According to an Associated Press story
that appeared in newspapers at the time of the
Bowdoin's departure, the Rawson-MacMillan
venture was one of only two Arctic expeditions
to be made that year (among 11 planned by six
nahons) with scientific research as the sole pur-
pose. It was MacMillan's tenth journey into
the Arctic in 18 years.

Field Museum's representatives on the
1926 expedition were bird taxidermist Ashley
Hine and assistant curator of fishes Alfred

C. Weed. James H. C. Martens of Cornell Uni-
versity went along to collect geological speci-
mens for the Museum. Frederick Rawson's
15-year-old son, Kennett, and Stanley Field's
14-year-old son, Joe (now a Field Museum life
trustee), were the Bowdoin's boatswain and
cabin boy, respectively.

Since radio technology was still in its in-
fancy, radio messages between Field Museum
and the expedition were for the most part
brief and reception was often poor. Chicago-
based Zenith Radio Corporation, which donated
short wave radio equipment for the Bowdoin
as well as a radio operator, also assumed the
responsibility for relaying messages between
the schooner and Field Museum. Zenith presi-
dent E. F. McDonald, Jr. wrote Museum director

D. C. Davies on July 14 that his operator on the
Bowdoin could "send messages only on Tuesday,
Thursday, and Saturday nights, while they

are in port. The reason for this is that two ships

in the same harbor cannot send and receive at
the same time. They can do this only when at
sea, and the ships widely separated." (The
schooner Sachem was also equipped with
radio equipment.)

Nonetheless, radio messages came through
with regularity, so Museum president Stanley
Field, director D. C. Davies, and sponsor
Frederick Rawson were able to follow closely
the expedition's progress. Short wave operators
in California, Wisconsin, New Jersey, Massa-
chusetts, and other areas picked up messages
from the Bowdoin that routinely reported mat-
ters such as weather and ice conditions, land-
falls, and collechng activities ashore. There
were also emergencies:

A July 13 radiogram from MacMillan to
Davies read: "Held here [Indian Harbor, Labra-
dor] . . . for two days by bad easterly gale. Fine
weather today, but ice packs extend as far east
and north as eye can reach. Waiting for westerly
wind to drive it off the coast. Dr. Thomas
[Bowdoin's physician] called upon to assist
today in emergency [appendectomy] upon 16-
year-old girl in one of four schooners in harbor.
Operation successful. Scientists hard at work."

MacMillan to Davies, July 19: "Anchored
tonight in Port Manners in North Labrador.
Shall examine tomorrow what Eskimos declare
are Norse ruins. May leave for Greenland
tomorrow night."

MacMillan to Davies, July 20: "Visited land
off northern Labrador coast and examined what
are declared by the Eskimos . . . to be the former
home of the stranger people [?] who came to sea

in boats a long time ago. These are called

by them Tunit. There are traditions here that
these Eskimos fought with the Norsemen and
killed some of them.

"I have learned of other places where the
old Norsemen lived and I shall visit them on my
return from northern Greenland in August. The
houses six in number consist chiefly of tumbled
down masses of glacier boulders and resemble
foundations of wooden houses roughly rectan-
gular in shape. Near these were several straight
walls which may have been built by the Norse-
men against the Eskimos. With all these findings
anywhere in North America there is really no
absolute proof that these are Norse ruins.

"Further and more careful work is
necessary.

"In this last part [reported the operator
who took the message] it was impossible to
catch many words of the message but by piecing
it together somehow I learned that the Bowdoin
with a boat by its side which is called Sachem
are proceeding toward Greenland and expect to
get there by next Friday morning. The crew is

feeling fine and says to give their regards to
their friends through the press'.'

Ashley Hine to Museum taxidermist Leon
Pray, July 26: "You would enjoy the delightfully
charming scenery along the coast of Labrador.
Thousands of islands, beautifully tinted ice-
bergs, and never saw such sky effects. This
country surely is an artist's paradise. Reached
Sukkertoppen today."

MacMillan to Davies, August 2: "Crossed
Arctic Circle last night. Now at Disko, our ob-
jective. . . . Plan to start back within few days
after visiting Ritenbank and Greenland's most
active glacier at Jacobshaven, obtaining here
samples of coal and native iron."

Joseph N. Field to Stanley Field, August 10:
"Am sorry have not sent you a message for so
long. Am having a wonderful time dancing
with the pretty Greenland girls at Holstenborg."

J. Field to S. Field, August 12: "We reached
Sukkertoppen today. . . . Why didn't you talk
to us from WJAZ Zenith Radio Station last night?
Tell American Boy that I will not promise to
write for them but I will try it."

J. Field to S. Field, August 16: "In Baffin
Land yesterday. Lots of ice. Abbie (Abie
Bromfield, expedition interpreter) killed
1,500-pound walrus today."

Hine to Wilfred Osgood, chairman of the
Department of Zoology, August 23: "Meeting
with good success have . . . fine series of snow
bunting, Lapland long spur, wheatear, etc.
American eider, surf scoter, and black mallards
in the total eclipse beautiful, white and gray gyr
falcon and downy young, also glaucous and
iceland gulls and ptarmigan immatures . . . and

Aboard the Bowdoin
on "Masquerade Day,"
(I. to r.): Rawson,
Weed, Janes, Field,
Thomas, Salman,
Robinson.

i*i«-. . ^ kV.V.V.

.«--'» • ♦'

- - '-'A-'-i.^ » • • 'y-*.*.*.*'*'*'/....*^ \v««><, -:^ **w

Left: /o/in T. Crowell,

Jr. , captain of the

Sachem, with Eskimo

visitors. Right: Bosun

Ken Rawson.

Left: joe Field takes

his turn at the wheel.

Right: Eskimo carving

found at Kugsuak,

South Stromfjord,

Greenland.

I have made satisfactory color sketches of all. I
find the days too short for there is much to do,
work which cannot be postponed, small mam-
mals are scarce but we have a number of fine
specimens for study and exhibihon, today the
warmest for six weeks ... 75 [degrees] mosqui-

toes and black flies are working over time and
are wonderful eye, ear, nose, and throat spe-
cialists, the Eskimos are very interesting and
nice people to know . . . Iceland gulls were
feeding on blueberries, we landed a nice walrus
. . . aurora borealis at close range are delight-
fully interesting. ..."

J. Field to S. Field, August 24: "We are at
Jack Lane's Bay Labrador hunting and enjoying
ourselves in every way possible. We should
reach Christmas Cove September 10. Hope you
and Mother meet me there and run on to
Wiscassett with us'.'

Hine to Osgood, August 28: "Bowdoin now
working up and down Jack Lanes Bay. Today
the ship seems deserted with most of the crew
ashore engaged in hunting or exploration.
Would like very much to have gone with the
boys but an abundance of skins means plenty of

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Holstenborg, Greenland

work for me at the bench. You would enjoy the
contrast between my Bowdoin studio and the
one I had grown so accustomed to at the
Museum. Space in our limited surroundings
here is a prized possession. However, I have
my own little spot twixt radio and ice box. Battery
boxes support a bit of panel board which com-
prises my desk. On the wall, bulkhead they call
it, everywhere are pinned my notes and

sketches. Birdskins packed in every conceivable
nook and corner, when the ship rolls as in heavy
seas, bird skins and radio fly together so Sparks
remarks. A jolly crew though and all happy in
the thought of our timely return. . . ."

Hine to U. A. Dohmen (head of Museum's
Division of Printing), September 4; "Anchored
on account of fog, rain and cold weather help to
make conditions more unpleasant. It does not

Taxidermist Ashley
Hine with one of his
sketches 9

'*-.T.1l"*

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.fc • •-'' • ♦'^ - - '•vi^ » " • '^-•»n\*'*'«'^,...«.^\\%V/y . .:»%v.«

Captain "Mac" shares

Georee Catlirt's book

on Indians with Nas-

kapi friends.

seem possible the summer has slipped by. We
still have about us odd shaped icebergs with
their beautiful tints of pale blue, green and violet.
They are so interestingly beautiful, they almost
seem to speak to one. ..."

A week later the Bowdoin's weary but
happy crew stepped ashore again at Wiscasset,
Maine.

On September 13 Stanley Field wrote to
Commander MacMillan about Joe: "I am

delighted with what this trip has done for Joe.
Physically and mentally he is a changed boy
and was broken hearted at leaving the Bowdoin
and the crew. He is crazy to go on another
expedition with you. The trip did wonders
for him. ..."

Field also expressed his pleasure with the
scientific results of the venture and with the
quality of MacMillan's leadership.

MacMillan replied: "It is very gratifying to
me to learn that the results of the Rawson-
MacMillan Museum Expedition of 1926 are most
satisfactory to you. . . . I feel, in view of the fact
that our expedition was limited to the brief
period of three months, which in reality means
a two-months working period, . . . that our
scientists, in spite of being seriously handi-
capped by narrow quarters on board ship, did
extremely well.

"After 19 years of Arctic work, the truth is
more pronounced than ever that ample and
really valuable results along certain lines cannot
be obtained during the summer months. . . .
Because of ice conditions in the Eastern Arctic
regions, a ship cannot reach [islands there] until
the 15th of July and even August 1st. By this
time the birds have changed their mating plum-
age, the eggs are hatched, the young . . . are
gone. Early spring flowers are withered thus

Icebergs viewed from
10 Bowdoin off Labrador.

making botanical data incomplete and therefore
of little value scientifically. . . .

"Facts pertaining to northern animal life
obtained and noted during the short-summer
season, are misleading . . . Summer observa-
tions are not enough. The work should be con-
tinued throughout the year . . . human life . . .
is also much different among the Eskimos
and Nascopic Indians ... in summer than
in winter.

"Therefore, to make a full and complete
study, . . . the period of work should continue
at least for 15 months from date of departure to
date of return."

MacMillan was successful in making his
point. The following year, 1927, he was to lead a
second Rawson expedition. It was to last, as he
proposed, for fifteen months. □

fHti r> !1k^H

kMi i

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^^^^^^^^^Bt^ '^^m^B Hk^flSt ^

The Museum's annual report for 1926 summarized
the results of the expedition:

Although the Rawson-MacMillan Subarctic
Expedition was conducted in the interest of the Mu-
seum as a whole and not primarily in behalf of the
Department of Zoology, nevertheless it was the
means of adding many new and desirable speci-
mens of vertebrate and invertebrate animals to the
Museum's collections.

. . . collecting was done, whenever possible,
in all of the harbors visited. In this work the
members of the passenger crew gave much valu-
able . . . assistance. Those who were fond of shoot-
ing obtained a sufficient number of birds to keep
Mr. Hine busy skinning and making color sketches.
Wherever trips ashore could be made, collecting
was done in streams, ponds, and tide pools. ... It
was of much interest to discover fishes living in
many landlocked ponds high up on the islands
along the coast of Labrador. As some of these
ponds apparently freeze solid in winter, the ques-
Hon arises as to how the small species of fish man-
age to survive.

The 1,811 zoological specimens obtained
. . . include: mammals, 52; birds, 158; bird eggs, 28;
fishes, 642; insects, 260; and invertebrates other
than insects, 671. [These are] of particular value in
that the Museum had previously very few speci-
mens from Labrador and Greenland ... a large
proportion of the birds obtained are water birds,
. . . urgently needed for the proper re-installation
of the exhibit of North American birds now under
way. One of the birds that is especially desirable is
the Greenland Wheat-eater, a species formerly not
in the Museum's collection. . . .

An interesting collection of 100 well-prepared
specimens of Greenland plants was made by Mr. A.
C. Weed. . . .

Wherever a landfall was made [geologist lames
Martens] secured representative rocks and miner-
als. Some of the localities visited, . . . have never
been previously reported on by geologists. ... As
far as possible, large specimens, suitable for
Museum display were obtained. These chiefly
illustrate rock structures and such . . . phenomena
as dikes, veins, folds and ripplemarks. . . .

At two localities in Maine sets of specimens
representing the principal formations outcropping
were collected. . . . In Nova Scotia, . . . good slabs
of ripple-marked sandstone were obtained from
Sydney, a specimen of conglomerate from near
Baddeck, gypsum from the white cliffs at Big Har-
bor and glacieted pebbles from St. Peter.

Near Curling, . . . Newfoundland, . . . speci-
mens were collected ilustrating the development of
rock cleavage and jointing, the formation of veins,
and some showing . . . materials . . . mined at
the slate, limestone and quartzite quarries of
the region.

Many localities in Labrador were visited.
. . . With the exception of some loose sands and
gravels on the surface, all of the rocks . . . were
found to be very ancient and to contain no fossils.
From these localities were collected large speci-
mens of . . . gneiss which show jointing, foliahon,
banding and folding. Trap dikes were found at
nearly every harbor, and specimens were collected
to show columnar and irregular jointing and the in-
crease in size of the mineral grains from the margin
of the dike toward the center. . . .

Some mineral specimens were also collected in
Labrador: chatoyant labradorite, . . . hypers-
thene, . . . serpentine, . . . actinolite, . . . albite
and potash feldspar. ... In Greenland . . . the
rocks were found to resemble those of Labrador,
being mostly gneisses with trap dikes. In South
Stromfjord ... a locality yielded . . . soapstone
such as is used by Eskimos for stoves or lamps.
Specimens of talc and asbestos were also obtained.

On Disko Island, specimens were collected
from the Tertiary volcanic rocks. . . . Most of them
contain zeolites in cavities. . . . Specimens of
native iron of Disko Island were obtained from the
Eskimos. Two specimens of sand obtained from
Holstenborg showed the effects of sorting by
waves, the sand being separated into a heavy por-
tion, consisting largely of garnet and a light one
which is nearly all quartz and feldspar. At Baffin
Island, a short stay . . . prevented collecting any-
thing more than some pieces of banded gneiss. . . .

The total number of geological specimens col-
lected was 579, and the number of geological pho-
tographs made was 181. . . .

Stanley Field (rt.),
Mrs. Field, and Cap-
tain MacMillan admire
birdskin mat from Suk-
kertoppen, Greenland,
following the arrival
of the Bowdoin at Wis-
casseton September 11.

Dinosaur Days

Saturday and Sunday, September 11 and 12
11:00 a.m.-4:00 p.m.

What happened 65 million years ago? Did a
star explode, exposing our planet to such
immense radiation that the earth's ozone
layer was burnt off, or did a huge asteroid collide with
our planet, darkening the skies with debris that made fur-
ther life impossible for many species? These are but two
of many theories about dinosaurs. Regardless which
proves correct the result was the same — the complete
eradication of the greatest and most mysterious of all
creatures — the dinosaurs!

Our investigation of these wondrous reptiles is rela-
tively recent, dating from the first published descriptions
in England in 1824, which identified the "great fossil
lizard of Stonefield." Before that, dinosaurs did not exist
for us.

Come to Field Museum September 11 and 12 to find
out about these ancient reptiles that ruled the earth for
140 million years. Enter Stanley Field Hall, decorated
for this annual celebration with an arcade of murals of
"unsung creatures": dueling archaeopteryxes, a flying
pteranodon, the duck-billed hypacrosaurus, and more.
Slide lectures, films, craft projects, performances, and
self-guided tours breathe life into dinosaurs, armored
giants of the seas, and fossil mammals.

A special program, "Fantasy Dinosaurs on Film,"
will be presented at 2:00 p.m. on Saturday by Donald F.
Glut, author of The Dinosaur Scrapbook. With the aid
of film clips from dinosaur classics, Mr. Glut will show

how movie dinosaurs are created and animated. Slide
lectures designed to expose the newest theories include:
"Ancients of the Deep: Fossil Fishes," "Sauropods —
the Ultimate Dinosaurs," "Cope and Marsh: the Saurian
Scandals," "Dinosaur Update — New Discoveries," and
a slide tour of the life and work of Charles Knight, the art-
ist who painted the historic murals in Field Museum's
Hall of Dinosaurs.

Children can enter the world of dinosaurs by visiting
the "Hadrosaur Habitat," a total environment that re-
creates the sights and sounds of the living world of dino-
saurs. A costumed Tyrannosaurus rex relates to children
many tales, including that of an ankylosaur in search of
water and of a forest fire during dinosaur times.

Join us on the sidewalks on the north side of Field
Museum to create a giant dinosaur mural in colored
chalk, or view a coelacanth, the recently discovered
lobe-finned fish once thought to be extinct for millions
of years. The entire family can enjoy special performan-
ces by synthesizer artist Doug Babb who, with the
audience's help, creates a "Prehistoric Soundscape"
— a symphony of "dinosaur sounds."

The second annual "Dinosaur Days" promises to be
exciting and information-packed for dinosaur enthusiasts
of all ages. The programs are free with admission to the
Museum — no tickets required. A schedule of activities
will be available at all Museum entrances on "Dinosaur
Days." For more information call (312) 322-8854.

ZbigniewJastrzebski

PRELUDE

The Spanish chroniclers following in the
wake of the destruction of Tawantinsuyu,
the vast imperial realm of the Inca, inquired
about the origins of that great conquering nation
from Cuzco. They were invariably told that the
first Incas emerged in the south, in the land the
Inca called CoUasuyu. This Inca myth of origins
derived, in part, from an ancient native belief in
the sacred character of CoUasuyu's LakeTiticaca,
the largest body of water in the Andean uplands.

More importantly, this myth reflected the
key economic and demographic position that
Collasuyu held in the political composition of
Tawantinsuyu. It was not simple coincidence
that the great king Pachakuteq (a.d. 1438-70) initi-
ated the Inca regime of imperial conquest by
moving against the native Aymara kingdoms of
the Titicaca basin.

From both archaeological and ethnohistoric
evidence, we know that two of the most power-
ful of these Aymara kingdoms were centered on
the western shores of Lake Titicaca. One of these
nations was the Colla, who built their capital,
Hatuncolla, to the north of the modern Peruvian
city of Puno. The other lake kingdom, a bitter ri-
val of the Colla, was the Lupaqa, who ruled from
the town of Chucuito to the south of Puno.

The economic foundations of these two
kingdoms were conditioned in part by landscape
and environment. These two states evolved on

Photos by the author excq>t where noted otherwise

the Andean high plateau, or altiplano, situated
between two great mountain chains: the Cordil-
lera Occidental in Peru and, to the east in Bolivia,
the towering Cordillera Real. The altiplano is a
cold, windswept environment subject to a
marked alternation between dry and wet seasons .
During the wet season, generally November to
March, frequent torrential rains cause periodic
changes in the levels of the many lakes in the Tit-
icaca basin, including that of Lake Titicaca itself.

The topography, elevation, and attendant
cold climate of the altiplano severely constrain the
agricultural inventory of the Titicaca basin: only
hardy tubers such as potato, oca, ulluco, and
mashwa, and the unique cold-adapted che-
nopod grains, quinoa and caniwa, can be readily
cultivated in this dour environment. These crops
were cultivated intensively in pre-Columbian
times. They continue to play a prominent role in
the diet of the modern inhabitants of the altiplano .

Despite these environmental limitations on
the agricultural regime, when even limited plant
cultivation was combined with large-scale herd-
ing of llama and alpaca, the biotic potential of the
Titicaca basin was enormous. The large indige-

Major portions of this essay are excerpted from Dr. Kolata's
article, "The Evolution of Civilization in the South Andes,"
which will appear in Ancient South Americans, Jesse
Jennings, editor. W. H. Freeman and Company Publishers,
San Francisco.

A remarkable ceramic
rendering of a trophy
head discovered by
Bolivia's Institute of
Archaeology at Kala-
sasaya, Ttwanaku's
principal temple. This
stunning portrait is
emblematic of the sensi-
tivity and sophistica-
tion of the plastic arts
produced in the great
civilizations of the
ancient Andean world.

YEARS AD/BC

1500

1200

900

600

300

AD_
BC

300

600

900

1200

1500

nous population and political importance of the
altiplano, as mirrored in the powerful Colla and
Lupaqa kingdoms, attest to this essential fact of
Andean cultural geography.

Without doubt, the cornerstone of the
altiplano economy was camelid pastoralism.
Sixteenth-century documents from the Lake
Titicaca region reveal that the Aymara kingdoms
controlled immense herds of llama and alpaca.
Some wealthy nobles owned up to 50,000 animals
and the total camelid population for this region
probably exceeded 500,000.

These enormous herds were grazed in sierra
basins above 2,500 meters and on the cold semi-
arid grasslands of the puna. The vast, gently un-
dulating zone of the puna lies above the effective
limits of intensive agriculture. Without llama and
alpaca intermediaries, this important zone
would have had little economic value for man.
Without pastoralism, the economic and demo-
graphic power base of Collasuyu would have
been greatly diminished.

The llama and alpaca were bred carefully,
primarily for their wool, which was woven into a
variety of textile products: tunics, bags, hats,
slings, and the like. The textiles, in turn, were di-
rectly used as clothing, exchanged for food and
other products, or used to discharge social obli-
gations. Secondarily, these Andean herd animals
were a readily available source of meat and could
themselves be exchanged for other food prod-
ucts. Finally, the llama was used for millennia
in Collasuyu as an efficient pack animal. Llama
caravans made up of as many as 2,000 animals

RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY

14 L

LATE HORIZON (INCA)

LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
(AYMARA KINGDOMS)

TIWANAKUV
TIWANAKU IV
TIWANAKUIII-"
TIWANAKU II
TIWANAKU I
LATECHIRIPA

EARLY CHIRIPA

ARCHAEOLOGICAL
SITES

Inak-uyu, Pilko-kaina,
Hatuncolla, Chucuito

f Luqurmafa, Pajchiri
PK-1a/b, PK-2, PK-3
PK-4, PK-5, PK-6,
PK-13

PK-la

PK-1a(?)

carried a wide array of food products, textiles,
pottery, and metals throughout Collasuyu.

It is this latter use of the llama as pack animal
that allowed the kingdoms of the Titicaca basin to
expand their economic universe beyond the con-
fines of the altiplano. Caravans from the high-
lands journeyed hundreds of kilometers to the
selva on the eastern slopes of the Andes as well as
to the Pacific coasts of Peru and Chile. In these
warm lands of lower altitude, the highlanders
obtained coca, maize, tropical fruits, pepper,
dried fish, medicinal plants, and other goods not
available in their colder homeland.

The warm-land products were acquired
through trade, but also more directly through
colonies established by the highlanders on the
Pacific coasts and in the valleys of the selva. The
Lupaqa, for instance, had colonists working
lands in the coastal valley of Moquegua in ex-
treme southern Peru. This uniquely highland
Andean system of directly exploiting distant
lands at lower altitudes could not have func-
tioned without the camelid caravans. The large
pack trains of llamas transported the desired
exotic goods from the colonies back to the alti-
plano homeland. The caravans also served as
the primary vehicle of communication between
the colonists, who lived in potentially hostile
foreign lands, and their sierra-based kinfolk
and compatriots.

Just prior to their conquest by the Inca, then,
the kingdoms of the Titicaca basin operated three
remarkably rich economic systems: (1) intensive
cultivation of tubers and chenopod grains in the
altiplano homeland, (2) extensive herding of
llama and alpaca, and (3) farflung networks of
trade caravans and colonies in the warmlands to
the east, west, and south of the altiplano. This
productive tripartite economy was not an inven-
tion of the late pre-Hispanic kingdoms. On the
contrary, these interrelated economies had far
more ancient roots in Collasuyu.

When Pachaquteq moved first to conquer
the kingdoms of Lake Titicaca, he was acknowl-
edging that Collasuyu held the economic and
demographic key to his nascent empire. Once
the Inca secured the Titicaca basin, their armies
naturally marched down the ancient caravan
routes to the coasts of southern Peru and north-
ern Chile, to the selva of eastern Bolivia and into
the uplands of northwestern Argentina. Over
one thousand years prior to the advent of the
Inca, these same routes to empire were followed,
and most probably created by one of the greatest
native states of the ancient Americas: Tiwanaku.
Ironically, despite its seminal role in the rich and
complex cultural history of the Andes, Tiwanaku
is perhaps the least understood pre-Columbian
civilization of the New World. As with any "mys-

i&^«4?^^i..K^^^-*^-'"^'^^^^

WTTlV^ ^..:'

Vista of the Bolivian
altiplano with the
towering Cordillera
Real in the background
and contemvorary
farmer's fields in the
foreground.

terious" and little known culture, countless
theories purporting to explain the genesis, evo-
lution, and impact of Tiwanaku in the ancient
Andean world abound. But it is only in the past
few years that a reliable body of empirical evi-
dence has emerged capable of testing and cor-
recting the hypotheses embedded in these
speculative theories, some of which border on
the distinctly bizzare (see "Archaeology at the
Top of the World" in Field Museum of Natural
History Bulletin, October 1979).

THE NATURE OF TIWANAKU

many of the primary symbols and stylistic con-
ventions of Tiwanaku art. From the sixth to the
ninth century, Huari was instrumental in spread-
ing its interpretation of the Tiwanaku style, and
presumably the religious doctrines and social
beliefs enbodied in this style, throughout the
highlands and coast of Peru. The precise nature
of the relationship between Huari and Tiwanaku
remains unclear. It is likely that neither city held
hegemony over the other, although the recent
discovery of Tiwanaku style building with finely
cut ashlar {i.e., hewn, rectangular) masonry be-
neath the surface architecture at Huari may alter

For an entire millennium (100 b.c.-a.d. 900), the
political and cultural history of the Titicaca basin
was determined by the fortunes of a single peo-
ple and their singular city: Tiwanaku. Tiwanaku
rose to prominence around 100 B.C., first in the
southern Lake Titicaca region, and then later,
around a.d. 200, throughout the entire lake basin.
Monumental construction projects, both archi-
tectural and agrarian, began at Tiwanaku during
phase 3 (a.d. 100-375) of the Tiwanaku archaeo-
logical sequence. They continued unabated
throughout the succeeding Tiwanaku 4 (a.d.
375-725), or "Classic Tiwanaku',' phase. In this
latter phase Tiwanaku achieved true imperial
status, establishing administrative centers, sat-
ellite cities, and economic colonies over the
altiplano, in the Bolivian selva and on the coasts
of southern Peru and northern Chile.

During the sixth century, the inhabitants of
the urban settlement of Huari in the southern
highlands of Peru adopted and reinterpreted

Cut Spondylus shell
llama figurine, height:
1 in. 77ie Spondylus
is native to the warm,
coastal waters of Ecua-
dor. Its shell was traded
throughout the Andes,
often as a symbol of
royalty. This figurine,
now in the National
Museum of Archaeol-
ogy, La Paz, Bolivia,
was discovered on the
surface of mound pk-3
by Anna Kolata in
November, 1981.
Photo: Fleur Hales. ^5

LAKE TITICACA

Tiwanaku and vicinity. Superimposed box represents area drawn in map below.

Pampa Koani and vicinity. Shown here is an extensive zone of ancient agricultural fields, together with a system of causeways that linked local adminis-
trative sites with the regional administrative centers ofLuqurmata and Pajchiri. Superimposed box represents the detailed area of fields, causeways, and
archaeological sites mapped on opposite page.

Detailed map of a portion of the Pampa Koani showing distinct systems of ancient drained fields, causeways, and the major
archaeological sites discussed in the text. White arrows outline the course of an old river meander. Black arrows outline the ar-
tificially channelized course of the Rio Catari.

Chullpa, or
stone burial tower, on
the island ofCumana
overlooking Lake
Titicaca. Such towers,
along with the agricul-
tural terraces in the
background, date
to post-Tiwanakii
times, in the period
AD. 1000-1500. Photo:
Michael Moseley.

Portion of a

wall built with finely

cut stone blocks at the

pyramid ofAkapana

18 at Tiwanaku.

this assessment. Huari and Tiwanaku may have
functioned as autonomous, "dual capitals" of
the imperial realm, controlling the northern and
southern regions of the empire respectively. This
type of political arrangement is not without
precedent in the history of Andean empire. Just
prior to its conquest by the Spanish, the Inca,
because of internal political squabbles, briefly
had two de facto capitals, one in Quito, the
other in Cuzco.

Many archaeologists, particularly those who
believe that Huari was the only true political cap-
ital of empire in the Andes at this time, have
interpreted Tiwanaku simply as a ceremonial
center: the focus of periodic pilgrimages from
throughout the southern Andes, but lacking a
substantial resident population. This interpreta-
tion of Tiwanaku resulted from considering only
its most impressive monumental architecture:
the pyramid of Akapana, and the two major
temples of Pumapunku and Kalasasaya (for a
description of the principal architecture at Tiwa-

naku, see "Archaeology at the Top of the World,"
cited above). However, recent research has
shown that the total occupation area of the settle-
ment, including both public and residential archi-
tecture, exceeds four square kilometers, implying
a larger permanent population than had been
suspected. Although insufficiently explored, as a
first approximation, the density and extent of
cultural debris in this residential zone suggests a
peak urban population for Tiwanaku between
30,000 and 50,000. There was certainly a much
larger nonresident population living in Tiwan-
aku's surrounding rural hinterland engaged in
agricultural and pastoral pursuits to support
themselves and the growing urban complex.

PAMPA KOANI: TIWANAKU'S
AGRICULTURAL ESTATE

The rulers of Tiwanaku were actively concerned
with reclaiming land for agriculture in this
hinterland. Around the southern and western
shores of Lake Titicaca lies a vast network of
prehistoric agricultural fields associated with
Tiwanaku 3 and 4 phase sites. These fields are not
uniform in size or shape, although all performed
a similar function: draining planting surfaces to
permit cultivation.

Two major types of field systems can be rec-
ognized in the Titicaca basin: (1) extensive raised
fields forming low, rectangular platforms which

Continued on p. 23

Fifth Annual Festival

Anthropology ON Film

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
West Entrance

Saturday and Sunday, September 25, 26, 1982
10:30 a.m. -5:30 p.m.

A Special Invitation to Explore
THE Rich Diversity of World Culture on Film

Our fifth annual festival features new releases by
leading ethnographic filmmakers, a wide variety
of work by Chicago area filmmakers, rarely seen
expedition footage from Field Museum's film ar-
chives, films on ritual and celebration, films of the
Arctic and Northwest Coast, and favorite films of
previous festivals.

More than 50 films are to be shown in Simpson
Theatre, Lecture Hall I, and Lecture Hall II — all
within a few steps of the Museum's barrier-free west
entrance. Saturday's features include new releases
(Simpson Theatre, all day), ritual and celebration
films (Lecture Hall I, 10:30 a.m. -2:00 p.m.), films by
Chicago filmmakers (Lecture Hall I, 2:00-5:30
p.m.), many highlights from past festivals (Lecture
Hall II, 10:30 a.m. -2:00 p.m.) and films from the

Arctic and Northwest Coast (Lecture Hall II, 2:00-
5:00 p.m.).

Sunday's features include more new releases
(Simpson Theatre, 10:30 a.m. -5:30 p.m.), several
highlights from past festivals (Lecture Hall I, 10:30
a.m. -1:30 p.m.), and extensive footage from films
made during Museum expeditions of the 1920s.
Below is a detailed schedule with program notes;
final adjustments may be made, however, so be sure
to check future listings.

Please use the coupon on page 22 to order
tickets. A schedule reflecting any final program
adjustments will accompany tickets ordered by mail.
However, this program is to be used as your Festival
guide and film notes. (It may be easily separated
from the magazine staples.)

Saturday, Sept. 25
James Simpson Theatre

10:30 a.m. -5:30 p.m.

new releases

Sea Side Woman (1979)
by Oscar Grille
5 minutes; color

An enchanting animation set in the Caribbean. Five minutes of
fun and adventure seen through an island girl's eyes. Music
by Linda McCartney and Wings.

Goodbye Old Man (1980)

By Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies

70 minutes; color

An ethnographic record of a bereavement ceremony as prac-

This schedule is subject to change

ticed by Melville Island's Tiwi people. Shown are activities prior
to the ceremonials: painting cemetery poles, dances, a mock
attack on spirits of the dead.

The Veiled Revolution (1980)

by Elizabeth Fernea and Marilyn Gaunt

30 minutes

Egypt was the first Arab country where women marched in
political demonstrations, removed the veil, and received public
secular education. The granddaughters of those early feminists
are now returning to traditional values. Why? What do the
women say about it?

An Acquired Taste (1981)
by Ralph Arlyck

25 minutes; color

A fi Im about how we experience the notion of success — that
obsession with "making it" built so deep into our culture.

A filmmaker's personal, whimsical journey through his own
school and working life in an effort to understand this.

Dadi's Family 0980)

by Michael Camerini and Rina Gill

58 minutes; color

A portrait of village women in India, and of a family in crisis.
The women of Dadi's family shatter Third World women
stereotypes as they reflect on their lives, roles, and per-
ceptions of change.

Creenaway (1982)
by Sue Gilbert
50 minutes; color

A portrait of an aristocratic American couple living on their own
island. Exploring wealth and its manifestations from an "inside"
perspective: the filmmaker is their daughter. A Chicago premiere.

Todos Santos Cuchumatan/Report from a
Guatemalan Village (1982)
by Olivia Carrescia
40 minutes; color

This film looks at a Guatemalan Indian village. Interviews with
villagers reveal political and economic changes now under-
way; the film also depicts the cycle of the harvest, the fiesta of
Todos Santos, and the seasonal migration to work in lowland
plantations. A Chicago premiere.

Living Treasures of Japan (1981)
by Norris Brock
60 minutes; color

Japan has honored more than 70 of its citizens as "Holders of
Important Intangible Cultural Properties." This film profiles a
potter, dollmaker, puppeteer, papermaker, koto musician,
swordmaker, textile artist, kabuki actor, and bellmaker.

Lecture Hall I

10:30 a.m. -2:00 p.m.
RITUAL AND CELEBRATION

Bali: The Mask of Rangda (1975)
by Marvin Bellin and Elda Hartley
30 minutes; color

Forty years after Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson filmed
a similar ritual, Bellin and Hartley present an overview of a
masked dance drama, narrating their own interpretation.

lyomande: The Ainu Bear Festival {iWmed in 1930s,
released 1970)
26 minutes; b/w

A narrated document of the annual Japanese Ainu Bear Festival,
depicting preparations for a bear cub sacrifice, with feasting,
dancing, and singing. A rich document of material culture and
ceremonial life.

Gelede: A Yoruba Masquerade (1970)
by Francis Speed and Peggy Harper
24 minutes; color

An impressive, colorful Nigerian mask dance-drama enacted
to combat the forces of witches, reinforcing definitions of men's
and women's roles. The film documents events leading to the
spectacular midnight appearance of the great Efa masks and
the next day's festivities.

Wagon Festival at Puri (1959)
From Encyclopaedia Cinematographica Collection
20 7 minutes; b/w silent

One of the most amazing wagons ever pulled through city
streets highlights Orissa's Juggernaut celebration. The wagon,
several stories high, is pulled by dozens of people through
crowds of thousands gathered for one of India's great festivals.

Festival at Mizumi (1979)

by Tom Haar

28 minutes; color

A document of a centuries-old spring festival in the town of
Mizumi, Japan. Featured are the 1 2 days of preparation and
rehearsal, the performance of Dengaku dances and a Noh play.

Navajo Indians (1939)

by Encyclopaedia Britannica films, with Clark Wissler

11 minutes; b/w

The events preceding and during the marriage of Taska and
Ainaba are portrayed in authentic scenes of Navajo work,
recreation, and ritual of the late 1930s.

Judge Wooton and Coon on a Log (1970)
by Herb E. Smith

10 minutes; b/w

The dog that gets the raccoon off the log and into the river quick-
est is the contest winner in this July 4 celebration in Kentucky.
Wooton's comments on life in the Kentucky hills are inter-
spersed with the canine feats.

2:00 p.m. -5:30 p.m.
CHICAGO FILMMAKERS

A special 3y2-hour program features the work of Chicago
filmmakers Tom Palazzolo, Jeff Kreines, Dana Hodgdon,
and others, some of whom will be on hand for discussion.
Check final schedule for complete listing.

Bean's Bachelor Party, Rodger, Practice Wedding, It's

Later than You Think

Films by Tom Palazzolo

Mr. Palazzolo has made more than 50 independent films in

his career and is well known for his cinema verite portraits of

Chicago Life. Mr Palazzolo will be present to introduce his films.

Dear Friends (1980)
by Dana Hodgdon

11 minutes; color

A satirical look at suburban life via the "family Christmas letter."

The Plaint of Steve Kreines as Recorded by His
Younger Brother Jeff (1974)
by Jeff Kreines
47 minutes; b/w

Observant, compassionate, and humorous cinema verite
account of the effect on middle-class, Jewish parents of their
first-born son finding a job, buying a car, and moving into his
own apartment. Expertly made by the younger brother, who
interacts with his family during the filming.

Ricky and Rocky 0973)

by Tom Palazzolo and Jeff Kreines

18 minutes; color

A backyard surprise bridal shower filmed cinema verite in
suburban Chicago.

fij/a(1981)

by Sharon Zurek and Lucinda Guard

5 minutes; color

A wonderful portrait of a snack shop waitress on Michigan
Avenue.

Lecture Hall II

10:30 a.m. -2:00 p.m.

HIGHLIGHTS FROM PAST FESTIVALS

The Nuer (1971)

by Hilary Harris and George Briedenbach

60 minutes; color

Life among these East African herders revolves largely around
their cattle, supplying their basic material and spiritual needs.
Portrayed are a bride price dispute, a ghost marriage, a revival-
istic ceremony to combat smallpox, and a young men's initiation.

Under the Men's Tree (1974)
by David and Judith MacDougali
15 minutes; b/w

Jie tribesmen of Uganda gather under the men's tree for chores
of fashioning leather thongs and making spears, and at the same
time engage in priceless banter, mostly about automobiles and
the relative worth of an automobile and a man.

Cinema (1971)

by Sebastian C. Schroeder

3 minutes; color

In Kabul, Afghanistan, is an itinerant motion picture exhibitor
with a wonderfully weird street cinema whose light source is
the sun and a hand-cranked projector Admission is H and
performances last about 3 minutes.

The Painted Truck (1971)

by Judith and Stanley Halletand Sebastian C. Schroeder

28 minutes; color

There are two methods of transportation in Afghanistan —
camels and trucks — and trucks are taking over This truck
driver tells what it is like to live and work there and reveals
much about his country's society, traditions, and culture.

Hush Hoggies Hush (1979)
by Bill Ferris and Judy Reiser

4 minutes; b/w

For 35 years, Tom Johnson of Betonia, Miss., has trained his
pigs to "pray" before they eat their trough. You have to see it to
believe it!

Qeros: The Shape of Survival (1978)
by John Cohen
53 minutes; color

A fascinating document of Peruvian Indians at 14,000 feet in
the Andes. The grandeur of the landscape and the beauty of the
music, weaving, and ceremonies are ever-present as the film
examines their pattern of survival.

2:00-5:00 p.m.

FILMS OF THE ARCTIC AND
NORTHWEST COAST

How to Build an Igloo (1949)
National Film Board of Canada
10 minutes; b/w

A demonstration of igloo-building in the far north. We see
how snow is chosen, how blocks are arranged, how the igloo
is ventilated.

Eskimo Artist: Kenojuak (1964)
by John Feeney
19 minutes; color

In this award-winning film we see Eskimo life through the eyes
of Kenojuak, whose beautiful drawings tell us so much about

her people's close relationship with nature. Today, her art is
eagerly collected around the world.

At the Time of Whaling (1974)

by Leonard Kamerling and Sarah Elder

38 minutes; color

An excellent film from the Alaska Native Heritage Series about
the Eskimo's traditional and contemporary culture. Produced
by the community in local language. English subtitles. Animal
slaughter scenes may disturb some viewers.

The Owl Who Married a Goose (1974)
by Caroline Leaf
8 minutes; color

An animated Eskimo legend with the voices and sounds of
Eskimos. Like most Eskimo legends this is based on a nature
theme — interacting creatures of the wild. It also has the wry
humor of many Eskimo stories.

The Loon's Necklace (1949, restored 1981)

11 minutes; color

Restored version. Through the use of authentic Northwest Coast
Indian masks, the film tells of Kelora, a blind shaman who seeks
the loon's aid in regaining his sight.

Potlatch: A Strict Law Bids Us Dance (1975)
by Dennis Wheeler
53 minutes; color

This exceptional film is the result of a strong collaboration and
empathy between filmmaker and subjects, the KwakiutI Indians
of the Northwest Coast. In the 1920s, the Canadian government
made a strong effort to repress the now-famous potlatch, which
is of great significance in KwakiutI culture.

Nathan Jackson, Tlingit Artist (1979)
14 minutes; color

Contemporary Tlingit Indian artist Nathan Jackson speaks
on traditional Tlingit art as he creates an elaborate wooden
house front.

Sunday^ Sept. 26
James Simpson Theatre

10:30 a.m. -5:30 p.m.

NEW RELEASES

Suzhou (1981)
by Sue Yung Li
30 minutes; color

From the "Cities in China" series. An intimate exploration of
China's longtime aesthetic and cultural center.

A Wife Among Wives (1981)
by David and Judith MacDougali
75 minutes; color

An inquiry into the marriage systems and values of the semino-
madic Turkana of Kenya. This film is the third of the "Turkana
Conversations" trilogy by acclaimed filmmakers David and
Judith MacDougali.

Long Shot (1982)
by Jane Hunziker
55 minutes; color

A beautiful, pastoral portrait of Basque shepherds in Colorado.
The film documents their work through the year These tradi-
tional herders are in competition with the "feed lot" tech-
nology— and their way of life is quickly disapp)earing.
A Chicago premiere.

Courts and Councils: Dispute Settlement in India

(1981)

Worldview Productions

30 minutes; color

An intriguing look at legal processes in India with scenes of local
councils acting on cases and formal court tribunals reflecting
the British legacy of "adversarial justice." A Chicago premiere.

Extinction: The Last Tasmanian (1980)
Artists Film Party
60 minutes; color

This amazing documentary tells the tragic story of British col-
onization of the island and the annihilation of the Tasmanians.

Fiji: The Great Council of Chiefs (1979)
by Robert Strum
29 minutes; color

Traditional and western components of ritual mix at the
1978 meeting of Fiji Island chiefs.

Soldier Girls (1981)

by Nick Broomfield and Joan Churchill

87 minutes; color

A riveting account of young women newly inducted into the
U.S. Army. Shot over a period of months, the film shows their
painful adjustment to military life. Some adapt, some do not.

Lecture Hall I

10:30 a.m. -1:30 p.m.

HIGHLIGHTS FROM PAST FESTIVALS

Cinema (1971)

by Sebastian C. Schroeder

3 minutes; color

In Kabul, Afghanistan, is an itinerant motion picture exhibitor
with a wonderfully weird street cinema whose light source is
the sun and a hand-cranked projector.

Trobriand Cricket: An Ingenious Response to

Colonialism (1976)

by Jerry Leach and Gary Kildea

53 minutes; color

A wonderfully entertaining film, Trobriand Cricket documents

transformation of the traditional British game of cricket into the
present Trobriand version.

The Stilt Dancers of Long Bow Village (1981)
by Carma Hinton and Richard Gordon
28 minutes; color

A remarkable film documenting the revival of stilt dancing in a
rural Chinese village. Banned for nearly 10 years during the
Cultural Revolution, stilt dancing is a folk art that combines
myth, history, contemporary politics, and daily village life.

Adama, the Fulani Magician (1980)
by Jim Rosellini
22 minutes; color

An entrancing film portrait of a renowned deaf African street
performer and practitioner of ancient magic.

2:00-5:00 p.m.

EXPEDITION FILM EXCERPTS FROM

MUSEUM ARCHIVES

Features film excerpts from Field Museum's early collect-
ing expeditions. These rarely seen films show important
artifacts from our Anthropology collections in their origi-
nal context, vk'hile other films document zoological col-
lecting techniques in the early '20s and '30s.

Jungle Islands: Crane Pacific Expedition of 1928-29

Intended as a pleasure cruise, this voyage was transformed
into a scientific expedition which brought back thousands of
sfjecimens.

Rawson-MacMillan Subarctic Expedition of 1926

Field Museum's first expedition into the far north which inves-
tigated alleged pre-Columbian Norse ruins. Scientists collected
mammals, birds, fishes, minerals, and Eskimo artifacts.

Borden — Field Museum Arctic Expedition

A 1927 trip to Alaska and beyond which brought back valuable
zoological specimens and anthropological artifacts.

Ancient Egypt

Fascinating footage of the pyramids, the Nile and the people
of Egypt filmed in 1923.

Kelly Roosevelt Field Museum Expedition to Asia

Rare footage from curatorial expedition to Asia in 1929.

Thome — Graves Expedition to Alaska

This expedition was launched to collect large arctic mammals.

This schedule is subject to change

For Festival information call 322-8854

Fifth Annual Festival of Anthropology on Film

September 25 and 26, 1982

City

Zip

Phone: Daytime

n Member

Evening

n Nonmember

Memljers: one day: $6.00; series: $10.00

Nonmembers: one day: $7.00; series: $12.00

Students with current college i.D. are admitted at Members' prices.

Saturday only D Sunday only D Entire Series D

Number of Tickets Requested

Member Nonmember

Amount enclosed: $_

(check payable to

Field Museum)

Please use west entrance for free admission to Museum. Confirmation will be
mailed* upon receipt of check. Please include self-addressed, stamped envelope.
Mail to:

Film Festival/Education Department
Field Museum of Natural History
Roosevelt Road al Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2497

•If coupon and check are received one week or less before the program, reservations
will be held in your name at the west door.

Ancient agricultural
fields near the shore of
Lake Titicaca. Oi'er
1,000 years ago these
fields were remarkably
fertile, producing
abundant harvests of
high altitude adapted
crops. Today, these
fields lie dormant,
graphically testifying
to the agricultural
prowess ofTiwanaku.

TIWANAKU

Continued from p. 18

were constructed by excavating earth from either
side of the projected field and mounding it in the
center. The resulHng agricultural construction
was an elevated planting surface ranging from
5 to 15 meters wide and up to 200 meters long, (2)
linear-ridged fields consisting of narrow (1-3
meters), levelled ridges separated by parallel fur-
rows of similar width. Like its larger counterpart,
ridged fields have great variability in length,
ranging from 10 to over 100 meters.

There appears to be a correlation between
spatial disposition and field type. In general, the
larger raised fields are found along the margins
of the lake plain, in land which is subject to annual
wet season inundation and supersaturation.
Most ridged fields, in contrast, are located on
land 5 to 30 kilometers from the lake itself, on
both level and sloping ground. This apparent
spatial separation of field types may have been a
function of local differences of drainage require-
ments, topography, soils, or crop types.

Three years ago, in conjunction with
Bolivia's National Institute of Archaeology, I
began an ongoing investigation of one important
zone of drained fields together with associated
sites directly related to Tiwanaku. This zone en-
compasses an area of approximately 100 square
kilometers near the base of the Taraco Peninsula,
some ten kilometers north ofTiwanaku. Archae-
ological survey in this region, called the Pampa
Koani, located nine major terraced mounds that
are clearly the result of large-scale corporate con-
strucHon, and a multitude of smaller habitation
mounds in direct association with the agricultu-

ral fields. Of the nine terraced platform mounds,
two contiguous structures, designated PK-5 and
PK-6, reached enormous proportions (120 meters
X 75 meters x 3.5 meters), rivalling the scale of
Pumapunku at Tiwanaku itself.

Subsequent excavation in these platform
mounds uncovered a great quantity of ceramics,
fragments of copper and bronze, finely polished

Tapestry tunic from
the desert coast of Peru.
Portrayed, in the lower
register, are representa-
tions of trophy heads
and stylized geometric
designs. In the upper
register are complex
representations of feline-
masked, winged war-
riors bearing staffs. This
textile is a splendid
example of provincial
Huari-Tiwanaku art.

The author examines

modern agricultural

fields outside of La

Paz. Because of poor

drainage, these fields

are encrusted with

salt. Unless they are

properly flushed with

fresh water, these fields

will rapidly become

useless for cultivation.

Salinization was also a

problem for Tiwarmku's

farmers, and may

have contributed to the

agrarian collapse of the

Pampa Koani. Photo:

Michael Moseley.

Stone and bone tools, and several human and
llama burials. Preliminary analysis of the "exca-
vated cultural material indicates that the giant
twin mounds were initially constructed in Tiwa-
naku phase 3. During "Classic Tiwanaku" (phase
4) times, the two platforms were remodeled and
enlarged. The other seven large corporate struc-
tures carry similar Tiwanaku 3-4 dates, although
the bulk of the ceramic material pertains to the
latter phase.

It is of more than passing interest that in the
deepest strata of three excavations, fragments of
Chiripa polychrome and fiber-tempered pottery,
as well as Tiwanaku 1 phase pottery, were re-
covered. Evidence of Chiripa, a direct cultural
predecessor of Tiwanaku and one of the most an-
cient ceramic-producing cultures of the Andean
area dating to the period from 1500-200 B.C., was
found in the deepest layers of our excavations in
the structures designated PK-la/b and PK-3.
From the 2.75-meter levels of a test pit in PK-3,
we recovered examples of Chiripa Polychrome,
among the finest multicolored ceramic wares of
this early period in Andean prehistory. Even
more significantly, at a depth of 2.80 meters in
PK-la, we discovered a hearth and what may
be the curved, cut-stone wall of an ancient
Chiripa house.

The significance of this modest architectural
discovery cannot be overestimated. Together
with the fragments of fiber-tempered and poly-
chrome pottery, this structure is direct evidence

Recent systematic
excavations by Boliv-
ia's National Institute
of Archaeology at the
great temple ofPuma-
punku at Tiwanaku.
Note the beautiful
ashlar masonry (regu-
lar rectangular blocks
ofandesite and sand-
stone) used in the
construction of Puma-
24 punku'b terraces.

Seeking shelter from a
cold altiplano rain,
the author's excavation
crew finds refuge, of a
sort, under the wooden
side of the expedition's
truck. Working for the
National Institute of
Archaeology, these
Aymara Indian men
have become skilled
in the techniques of
excavating the ruins
of their long-forgot-
ten ancestors.

that the people of Chiripa were living on the
Pampa Koani. As in the later Tiwanaku periods,
there was only one compelling reason for the
Chiripa people to live on this vast, flat plain on
Lake Titicaca's shore: to exploit this incredibly
fertile land for agricultural purposes.

Indirectly our archaeological discoveries im-
ply that, from a remarkably early date (1500 B.C.),
the people of the Bolivian altiplano were engaged
productively in agricultural pursuits, perhaps
even in the intensive cultivation of ridged fields.
If this conclusion is confirmed by future re-
search, the Pampa Koani will take its place as the
focus of one of the earliest and most important
expressions of aboriginal agriculture in the
New World.

Truly massive land reclamation programs,
however, were not undertaken until the later
Tiwanaku period (phases 3-4). During this time
when the major platform mounds were being
erected, an entire river, the Rio Catari which
crosses the Pampa Koani, was channelized and
artificially diverted away from the middle of the
pampa to facilitate reclamation of this period-
ically inundated land. The meander channel of
the old river course may be seen in the accom-
panying field system map, as well as the artifi-
cially straightened banks of the "new" course.
This field system map is based on aerial photo-
graphs which clearly show that the area of
drained fields below the old river meander is
poorly preserved relative to fossil fields else-
where on the pampa. Although this must still be
properly confirmed on the ground, I would sur-
mise that the poorly preserved fields below the

meander represent the oldest systematic net-
work of drained fields on Pampa Koani. At some
time after this initial network was in operation,
the river was diverted away from the middle of
the pampa and artificially channelized to accom-
modate a vigorous episode of agrarian expan-
sion. All of the better preserved fields to the west
and north of the old meander channel probably
date to this active phase of new land reclamation.
Eventually, drained fields were constructed
throughout the entire Pampa Koani region and
beyond, to encompass an area exceeding 100
square kilometers.

Architectural and agrarian construction
projects of such an audacious scale are the hall-

The two foremen of the
excavation crew record-
ing archaeological
strata in a deep test pit
in mound pk-IS (pwi-4)
on the Pampa Koani.
Visible are various
floors of adobe and
packed clay represent-
ing a protracted occu-
pation of the mound.

Small Tiwanaku

IV phase jar with

multiple condor head

motif. This jar was

excavated from an old

occupation floor in

mound PK-la and is

now on display at the

National Museum

of Archaeology in

La Paz.

marks of a highly organized, state-level society
that can invest in a vast, integrated labor pool.
The Tiwanaku state's method of mobilizing labor
resources of this magnitude w^as probably some
form of the ancient and virtually pan-Andean
labor tax system. The labor tax system, best
known from the Inca, who referred to it as the
mita obligation, required each household to per-
form a designated amount of labor service for the
state each year. The mita institution was the driv-
ing force behind the rapid and efficient construc-
tion of the monumental, government-inspired
projects such as palaces, temples, agricultural
terraces, and the sweeping, uninterrupted re-
claimed fields of the Pampa Koani.

Agricultural activity continued on the
Pampa Koani into the succeeding Tiwanaku 5
phase (ad. 725-1000). Thereafter, there seems to
have been massive agrarian collapse, probably
brought on by the political disintegration of the
Tiwanaku empire. After this time, the drained
fields of the Pampa Koani were never reutilized.
The Inca occupation of the zone is restricted to
the surrounding hillsides which became the
focus of a second type of agricultural reclamation:
the construction of large terraces, or andenes. The
abandonment of the Pampa Koani drained fields
may have been due to a major change in the level
of Lake Titicaca that adversely affected the agri-
cultural regime (modern records show that the
lake level fluctuates as much as 4 meters in a dec-

Head of a sandstone sculpture from the site of Pokotia. This
piece IS representative of a style of early Tiwanaku stone carv-
ing, probably dating to around 300 B.C. It now rests, together
with a similar companion piece, next to the portal of the Cath-
olic church in Tiwanaku.

ade). Today, this vast zone of agricultural fields
lies dormant and salt-encrusted, dwarfing the
modern area of cultivation. These fields are elo-
quent testimony to the agricultural prowess and
productivity of the Tiwanaku state.

During Classic Tiwanaku (phase 4) times,
two major, state-inspired administrative centers
were established just west of the Pampa Koani at
the edge of Lake Titicaca. One of these centers,
Luqurmata, was erected on a large artificially lev-
elled hilltop overlooking the lake. Luqurmata
was constructed with dressed stone blocks and
features a rectangular sunken court fitted with
finely cut staircases and gateways as the princi-
pal element of its architectural ensemble. Of
course, rectangular sunken courts, polished ash-
lar masonry, monumental cut-stone gateways
and staircases are the most prominent architec-
tural features of Tiwanaku itself, and these served
as models for construction in its satellite centers.
In addition to the finely conceived architecture at
Luqurmata, beautiful, highly burnished Classic
Tiwanaku ceramic vessels, semiprecious stone
pendants, slivers of embossed gold and silver,
and shattered fragments of stone sculpture have
all been recovered from this dramatic, acropolis-
like site.

Approximately 8 kilometers north and
slightly east of Luqurmata, on an opposite shore
of Lake Titicaca, lies a virtually identical counter-
part nestled into a small bay backed by imposing
mountain peaks. This site, called Pajchiri, was

constructed on massive, artificial terraces and
also boasts large-scale stone architecture, includ-
ing a particularly impressive staircase carved
from a single block. Although little scientific
work has been done on Pajchiri, it clearly dates
to Tiwanaku phase 4 times. The proximity of
Luqurmata and Pajchiri to the contemporaneous
agricultural fields of the Pampa Koani suggests
that these remarkable satellite settlements of
Tiwanaku were directly involved in administer-
ing the huge agrarian reclamation programs on
that plain.

Taken as a whole, we can reconstruct a hier-
archical settlement network for Tiwanaku and its
proximal affiliated sites: Tiwanaku itself as the
primary center and capital of the state; Luqur-
mata and Pajchiri as secondary, regional admin-
istrative centers; the major terraced mounds of
Pampa Koani as tertiary local administrative
centers; and the small habitation mounds dis-
persed throughout the agricultural fields as
quaternary loci of the population engaged in
intensive farming. Such a four-part settlement
system is a distinguishing characteristic of an
integrated preindustrial state and suggests that
the Tiwanaku state maintained a high degree of
administrative efficiency and centralization of
agricultural production.

A similar pattern of strategically located,
state-built administrative centers near zones of
potentially arable land can be documented for
the entire circum-Titicaca region during Tiwa-
naku phases 3-4. Most of the known Tiwanaku
satellite settlements of this type, such as Wankani,
Mocachi, and the like, are situated along the
southern and eastern rim of the lake in Bolivia.
However, there is clear evidence for intrusive
Tiwanaku sites in the northern Titicaca basin of
Peru near Puno and on the island of Esteves. In

PRIMARY CENTER

Capital TIWANAKU

SECONDARY CENTERS 1 1

Regional Administration LUQURMATA PAJCHIRI

TERTIARY CENTERS | I \ I I I

Local Administration PK-2 PK-3 PK-4 PK-5 PK-6 PK-13

QUATERNARY LOCI

Agricultural Production —

MULTIPLE HABITATION MOUNDS

Schematic Representation of Tiwanaku's Hierarchical Settlement Network

addition, Tiwanaku ceramics dating to phases 3
through 5 are documented for a wide area of the
Peruvian altiplano, particularly in the area around
Puno, which, probably not coincidentally, en-
compasses a wide zone of prehistoric drained
fields. This distinctive settlement pattern clearly
reflects a political unification of the Titicaca basin
imposed by Tiwanaku, directed toward expand-
ing that state's agricultural production.

COLONIES AND CARAVANS

The Tiwanaku state economy, although
grounded in intensive altiplano agriculture, was
not restricted to it. With Tiwanaku we have the
first unambiguous evidence for a formalized
system of vertical control over the economic
resources of ecologically distinct zones through
colonization. In the Inca empire, state adminis-
tered economic colonies were termed mitmaq-
kuna. Tiwanaku economic colonies appear to
have been fully analogous to the Inca mitmaqkuna,
which functioned as a critical organizational tool

Tkvo beautiful "Classic
Tiwanaku ' ceramic
portraits of nobles of
the realm. The male
figure wears a conical
headdress, ear spools,
andalabret. The female
figure, forming the
base of a whistling jar,
wears an elaborate
necklace and has a
hole for a removable
labret, now missing.
These two pieces were
said to have been found
together in a tomp
on the peninsula of
Copacabana in Bolivia.
They are now in the
collection of the British
Museum, London. ZT

Tiwanaku IV phase
pottery bowl represent-
ing llama caravan.
Shown here is one of
three interlinked llamas
xvith packs on their
backs.

of the empire. It is likely that the Tiwanaku (and
Huari) economic colonies served as a prototype
or model for the later Inca manifestation.

Economic colonies established by Tiwanaku
can be recognized to the east of the altiplano on the
edge of the Bolivian selva, as well as to the west,
on the Pacific coasts of southern Peru and northern
Chile. In the lands to the east of Lake Titicaca,
sites such as Sina, Ninokorin and, southward in
the Cochabamba area, Arani, Tiquipaya, Pucara
and Perereta were founded at various times in the
Tiwanaku 3-5 period to exploit the rich resources
.of this temperate and tropical zone. In this way,
the residents of the imperial capital on the high-
land plateau enjoyed direct access to large quan-
tities of important warm land crops such as maize
and coca, as well as more exotic goods such as
tropical birds and medicinal plants.

In similar fashion, Tiwanaku maintained
colonies on the Pacific coasts in the valleys of
extreme southern Peru and northern Chile. Tex-
tiles, gold keros (a type of drinking vessel) and
carved wooden snuff trays in the purest Classic
Tiwanaku style have been recovered from graves
in Chile. Fragments of Classic Tiwanaku textiles
are reported from the Moquegua-Ilo area of
southern Peru, as well as somewhat farther
north from the lea area. These objects may very
well have been produced at and imported from
the imperial capital itself as the possessions of an
elite class of Tiwanaku administrators. There are
substantial Tiwanaku 5 phase occupations at sites
in southern Peru such as Chen Chen, Loreto
Viejo, and Tacna, and in northern Chile at
Pisagua, Chiu Chiu, Quitor, and others. The
archaeological evidence points to intense Tiwa-
naku interest in and direct utilization of the warm
lands of the Pacific coast throughout the Tiwa-
naku 4 and 5 phases.

Apart from altiplano agriculture and mitmaq-
kuna-XiVe colonies, a third element played a vital
role in Tiwanaku's imperial economy: llama cara-
vans. It is again in the centuries dominated by Ti-
wanaku that we have the first solid evidence for
the systematic state-directed organization of an
important Andean social and economic institu-

tion. Llama caravans organized by the Tiwanaku
empire journeyed throughout the Bolivian high
plateau and into the interior valleys and coasts of
Chile bearing enormous quantities of goods to be
exchanged and redistributed. Through this Chil-
ean connection, Tiwanaku influence extended
even farther to the south into the uplands of
northwestern Argentina.

TIWANAKU IN PERSPECTIVE

After the disintegration of the old Tiwanaku
empire around a.d. 1000, the political unity in the
Titicaca basin that it had fostered was shattered
into a number of smaller, competing states. As
we have seen, two of the more powerful of these,
the Colla and the Lupaqa, were independent
kingdoms situated in the northern Titicaca basin.
Other similar polities, such as the Collagua to the
northwest and the Pacaje to the southwest of
Lake Titicaca, maintained their own spheres of
influence, although these were continuously
contested.

Given the still fragmentary nature of our
knowledge about Tiwanaku, it is singularly diffi-
cult to assess the impact that this empire of the
high plateau had on the ancient Andean world.
Nevertheless, we have been able to trace the
roots of the integrated, tripartite economy (inten-
sive agriculture, extensive herding, colonies and
caravans) that has been historically documented
for the late pre-Hispanic kingdoms of Lake
Titicaca, to the highly organized state economy
engendered and maintained by Tiwanaku over
1,000 years earlier.

We know further that during its thousand-
year imperium, Tiwanaku was the paramount
city of the Titicaca basin, which, in turn, was the
major demographic center of the Andes. Many of
the important organizational features character-
istic of the later Inca empire can be traced to the
shattered remains of Tiwanaku that are left to us.
The centralization of political power in an impe-
rial capital, the inculcation of state propaganda
through widespread dissemination of an impe-
rial art style, the use of mita labor in massive state
construction projects, and the establishment of
mitmaqkuna economic colonies are all archaeo-
logically definable elements in the ancient
Tiwanaku polity.

The Inca emperors themselves acknowl-
edged the pervasive influence of Tiwanaku on
the political geography of the Andean world
when they traced their royal lineage to the inhab-
itants of that once splendid metropolis of the
altiplano. In doing this, they were invoking the
mystique of Tiwanaku's imperial past to justify
their own ultimately successful attempt to recon-
stitute an empire in the Andes. D

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

Baja California
and the Sea of Cortez

February 19 to March 4, 1983

Just 50 miles south of the Califor-
nia border is a subtropical para-
dise for marine life — the Sea of
Cortez. Steeped in legend and his-
tory, Baja California and the Sea of
Cortez have the mystique of the
unknown. Virtually inaccessible by
road until 1973 and with only 5 per-
cent of the coastline yet accessible by
road, Baja had remained largely un-
visited except by the most dedicated
of scientists and sportsmen.

What they found, a treasure
house of life, you can now share from
the comfort of a first-class natural
history cruise ship. Lyall Watson, au-
thor of Whales of the World, has said,
"there is probably no other body of
water in the world where more spe-
cies of cetacean can be seen more
clearly than in the Sea of Cortez." Add
to that a fantastically rich seabird
fauna, the richest assemblage of
shallow- water marine life in the east-
ern Pacific , giant barrel cacti , boojum
trees, rock paintings, rugged mono-
liths, and soaring peaks and cliffs
plunging vertically into the sea, and
you have a natural history trip be-
yond comparison.

And that's only the first half! The
second week of this 14-day tour in-
cludes a visit to the outer shore la-
goonal breeding and nursery areas of
the California gray whale. We will
spend two days approaching and
watching these wondrous creatures
at close range. Also in the second
w^eek a visit to the fabulous San
Benitos islands, home to huge colo-
nies of elephant seals, sea lions, and
diverse bird life.

Accommodations for the trip
will be on board the 143.5-foot
Pacific Northwest Explorer, a one-
class ship of 99.7 tons gross weight.
Built in 1980, air-conditioned
throughout, with all cabins outside
and with private facilities, this ship is
ideal for natural history observation
in that her IVz-fooi draft allows very
close approach to the land and high
maneuverability while approach-
ing whales. Veteran Captain Robert
Hempstead has captained the ship
in two previous and highly suc-
cessful (1981, 19823 seasons of Baja
coastal explorations.

Leading the tour will be Dr
Robert K.Johnson, curator of fishes
and chairman of the Department of

Zoology. A graduate of Scripps Insti-
tution of Oceanography, Dr. Johnson
has participated in two previous Baja
Circumnavigated tours. Special Ex-
peditions, a division of Lindblad
Ti-avel, operators of the ship to be
used, will provide several additional
naturalists whose expertise will fur-
ther enrich our experience. For fiarther
information and a detailed brochure
please call Dorothy Roder, Field
Museum Tours, at (312) 322-8862
or write to Field Museum Tours,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago IL 60605.

Dr. Johnson 's article "Baja Circumnavigated "
appeared in the October 1981 Field Museum
Bulletin.

The grim visage of
a Jaguar warrior,
painted in Mexico a
thousand years ago,
suggests the military
might behind the rise
and fall of early states
which existed long
before the well-known
Aztecs and Incas estab-
lished their empires.

Learning Museum Program Continues With

Latino Images: The Other Americas

By Donald McVicker, Sociology/Anthropology Department Head, North Central College, and
Anthony Pfeiffer, Project Coordinator, Department of Education, Field Museum

For thousands of years neighboring settle-
ments throughout the world were sepa-
rated from each other by mutual antagonism
or passive avoidance and by differing languages and
cultural traditions. Social and geographic barriers
often narrowed travel and communication to strictly
local affairs. However, by 1500 B.C. in what is known
today as Latin America, some tribes began to exert
their influences over their neighbors. Chiefdoms
arose and extended their sway over their neighbor's
neighbors. Boundaries of the tribal world were shat-
tered and states were born. As realms that were as
mysterious to the conquerors as the far reaches of
the solar system are to us were discovered, the first
empires emerged.

The preliterate world of the early empires was a
world of strangers speaking a babble of tongues. All
expansionist states now faced the same problem:

how to communicate to a multi-ethnic and multi-
linguistic populace in the absence of a written
language. Imperial art, carved in stone and wood,
modeled in clay and adobe, or magnificently painted
on walls, became an "international" medium for
power proclaiming itself. Subject peoples soon
incorporated the symbols of imperial power into
their native arts and crafts, only to replace them by
other themes as empires collapsed. In ancient high-
land Mexico, for example, cycles of conquest were
recorded on painted walls in public places. The
recently discovered murals of Cacaxtla in the state of
Tlaxcala depict a bloody battle between jaguar war-
riors and feathered invaders as well as a new impe-
rial harmony expressed as a balance between the
symbols of the jaguar-associated deity Tezcatlipraca
and those of the feathered serpent Quetzalcoatl.
Spanish conquistadors brought the pre-

Columbian cycles of conquest to an end; they gained
control of the gold and souls they so avidly sought.
However, the natives of New Spain learned quickly
from their conquercrs. They recorded their own ver-
sions of events in traditional picture books and in the
strange new writing system of the Spaniards. Indian
artists adopted Spanish themes as they had adopted
the power symbols of their earlier conquerors. Their
works of Christian art included remnants of ancient
beliefs, skillfully blended with the new symbols. The
Cross was molded on traditional clay discs; rows of
animal figures recalling the pantheon of native gods
were painted in churches, and dogs which evoked
the memory of the once all-powerful feathered
serpent were carved in convents. Conquest faded,
ancient beliefs were supressed; but the tradition of
visual art continued to serve as a means of commu-
nication with the largely illiterate masses.

The Spanish empire began its long decline dur-
ing the seventeenth century. Even the seemingly
inexhaustable mines of silver and gold began to
play out. Although few recognized it at the time,
lowly food crops, not royal bullion, were the true
treasures of the New World. The early native em-
pires had been based on Indian corn and potatoes,
just as centuries later sugar and coffee provided the
basis for colonial wealth.

The gradually loosening grip of Spain on her
colonies was reflected in both colonial elite art and
folk art, with dramatically opposed results. Colonial
art, produced by second-rate artists for their pa-

The Learning Museum At Field Museum

The Learning Museum Program began at Field Museum
in 1979 with a gran t from the Na tional Endowmen t for
the Humanities (NEH), a federal agency. The NEH
grant allowed the Museum to present a three-vear
sequence of learning opportunities focused on its out-
standing exhibits and collections. Courses were de-
signed to give participants an opportunity to explore a
subject in depth. Field Museum is pleased to announce
that the Learning Museum Program continues as a fea-
tured offering in Courses for Adults brochures. The
program emphasizes special Museum activities and
strengths as it did under NEH funding.

. PiL'^i.''.

trons, mimicked the Spanish baroque style; folk
art, retaining its vitality, reached new heights of
creativity. Even today, folk themes dominate much
of Latin American art, and appear in both public
and private collections.

Spanish American independence was achieved
early in the nineteenth century, and modem nations
began to emerge. Ho\vever, it was soon apparent
that many independent republics had exchanged
one form of colonialism for aqpther; autocratic
rule had been traded for repressive dictatorships
and Spanish imperialism for Euro-American
dependerice.

By the end of the nineteenth century the influ-
ence of the United States in Spanish America, for
good or ill, began to increase spectacularly. This
influence resulted in economic progress coupled

(Of

The monolithic "portal
of the sun "at Tiwanaku,
Bolivia, is portrayed in
this engraving. Before
the Inca, great high-
land empires were
formed a t Tiwanaku
and at Huari in Peru.
The spread of these
empires can be traced
by the appearance of
the "staffgod" (por-
trayed above the
portal) on pottery
from Perus Pacific

coast. 2534 31

with increased inequality. Democratic regimes were
supported when they were congruent with Ameri-
can economic and security interests. When they
were not, the installations of military dictatorships
were condoned. In Mexico, Porfirio Diaz's "bread
and stick" dictatorship (1877-1911) opened the flood-
gates for American and European investments.
Investors purchased commercial estates at the
expense of peasant land holdings. The scene was set
for ten years of revolution.

The twentieth-century Mexican revolution was
the first to reverse the tide of dollar imperialism and
allow the resurgence of native traditions. Once again
the power of art blending ancient and modern
themes was realized. Neo-Aztec architecture at the
National Autonomous University expressed pride in
national heritage, and murals throughout the coun-
try sent the message of revolution to the people.

Among the new generation of muralists, Diego
Rivera (1886-1957) was the master. In his Mexico City
National Palace murals he glorified pre-Hispanic
culture, villified the conquerors, and showed the
church corrupt. To summarize his vision of history
Rivera chose the ancient Aztec symbol of an eagle
perched on a cactus. But instead of painting the tra-
ditional captive serpent in the eagle's beak, he de-
picted the symbolic destruction of Spanish rule.

Rivera's message was brought to the United
States in the 1930s when he was commissioned to do
a mural for the RCA Building in New York's Rocke-

ABOVE: The great 16th-
century English botanist
John Gerar is portrayed
in his work, The Herball
or general historie of
plantes, holdings potato
plant. Although Utile
esteemed on its arrival in
Europe, the Peruvian
potato was toprovean
invaluable basic food
around the world. 86183A.
BELOW: A Chiriguano
Indian woman of Bolivia
produces traditional
pottery in 1960. Never
conquered by the Inca,
the Chiriguano fell
victim to the Spaniards,
and were subject to the
Jesuits. When thejesuits
were expelled in 1767
and their lands opened to
Spanish civil and
military settlers, the
Indians fled into the
forests. There they retain
remnan ts of their ancien t
32 way of life. 96478

This early Colonial ornamental clay disc, discovered at Teotihuacan, Mexico, isnowin thecoUection ofthe Field Museum. A
Prehispanic sun design serves as the background for a symbolic moun tain - temple topped by a Christian cross. <mz7

feller Center. The mural set off such a storm of anti-
revolutionary protest that the uncompleted fresco
was smashed to powder. However, destruction of
art by conqueror or capitalist does not suppress the
demand for social justice. Even today, revolutionary

folk art continues to proclaim its message. On the
walls of Chicago's barrios the plight of the Latino
minority in the United States is deplored, and the rec-
ord of United States political, cultural, and eonomic
intervention in Latin America is questioned.]]]]

Latino Imagf.s: The Other Americas invites you to ex-
plore Latin American culture from pre-Hispanic times
to present. Delve into the origins of symbols as visual
representations of empire and power. Aztec, Maya,
Inca, and other imperial regimes proclaimed their
might through emblems which became incorporated
into the art ofthe people they conquered. The Spanish
symbols of sacred and secular power were in turn in-
corporated into the evolution of a new artistic heritage.
This heritage kept alive native traditions, which were
later reborn in the fire of revolution. Visual symbols of
power, which were once expressed in sculpture 'and
mural, are now stated in film. This new medium brings
movement and immediacy to the present day Latino
struggle for land and liberty.

Latino Images: The Other Americas offers a look at

the roots of Chicago's largest ethnic minority. The pro-
gram offers timely historical perspectives on Latin
America, and the controversial role ofthe United States
in determining its affairs, the program explores how
native vitality has endured despite indigenous empire
and Spanish imperialism. Discover how the lasting
voice of nationalistic art still speaks to the people in an
age of global conformity. Listen to the people of Latin
America. This is a critical time in the history ofthe re-
lationship between the United States and the Latin
American countries, a critical time for airing issues.
How well non-Latinos balance their interests with an
understanding of these issues may shape the course of
future events from El Salvador to the Falkland (Malvi-
nas) Islands. See the Fall, 1982 Courses for Adultshro-
chure for complete program details.

Museum Views... and Viewpoints

These cartoons by Marion Pahl, former Field Museum illustrator, origi-
nally appeared in the January, 1957 Bulletin. But her candid, tongue-
in-cheek sketches of visitor behavior could well have been done in 1982.

^^i?»^>lijs^

V/:^~i-

■■'^'^^■'ti-

•'^~

We^re Here!

William Burger, Chairman of the
Department of Botany, recounts an
experience while on a recent col-
lecting expedition to Costa Rica: A
difficult situation has a happy
conclusion, thanks to Costa
Rican hospitality

/have often told people what a pleasure it has
been to work in Costa Rica. A small democ-
racy between Nicaragua and Panama with a
friendly, highly literate populace, Costa Rica also
supports an extraordinarily rich flora and fauna.
Our work in preparing an encyclopedia-like review
of the flowering plants of this region has meant
six expeditions for me over the last fifteen years.
These trips have covered every month of the year
and gotten us into almost every corner of this pic-
turesque and mountainous land.

In aU these many trips I have never had an
unpleasant interpersonal encounter with a Costa
Rican. Whether I've been tramping across a farmer's
field, arriving unannounced at a study site, or
bumping my Jeep into a police car (wath policemen
inside), Costa Ricans have always been courteous,
open, and friendly. But one always fears that maybe
on the next trip the long-overdue bad encounter
will take place.

A short time after arriving in Costa Rica in late
January, our colleague, Jorge Gomez-Laurito, told
us of a dairy farmer on the slopes of Volcan Mira-
valles who had provided biologists with a room at
his home. Jorge suggested we use this as a base
from which to collect and I thought it was a great
idea. This long-dormant volcano supports lush wet
forest and is in a chain of volcanoes in the north-
western part of the country that has been little
collected. So, together with Kerry Barringer (visiting
assistant curator on the flora project), the three of
us piled ourselves and our gear into the Landcruiser
and were off for Volcan Miravalles.

Jorge, who has a joint appointment at the
Universidad de Costa Rica and the Museo Nacional,
had made arrangements. But after traveling five
hours and finally working our way up the dirt road
to the farm of our intended host — you guessed it
— we had arrived before the news that we were
coming. Not only had this farmer (a prosperous
dairyman) no idea that he might have three visitors
he had never seen before, but he was busy loading
his family and gear into a station wagon. It seems

the entire family was off for a mini-vacation down
on the Pacific coast and we had come in just as
they were getting ready to leave. Egad, I thought.
The last hotel we had passed was nothing more
than cinder-block walls with a tin roof and a
couple of rooms; this was going to be a very uncom-
fortable collecting trip. But after introductions and
talking with Jorge for a while our host welcomed
us to his lovely hacienda, extending us the key of
the house, and with the phrase "su casa" left with
his family for the coast. I knew Costa Ricans were
friendly, but this I hadn't expected.

The ranch-style home on gentle slopes sur-
rounded by pasture and evergreen wet forest for-
mations was our base for three days and nights.
After messing up the carport and open porch with
dirt and the debris of plant collections you can be
assured that we scrubbed and swept it well. This
was the least we could do to show our appreciation
for such extraordinary hospitality. D

OUR ENVIRONMENT

Killen of Bald E^e Fined, Sentenced

After pleading guilty to <±axges at ^toot-
ing and IdBmgaboId eagle, two Peuy vile,
MO tesidents reuatily were fined SMIOO
each, given a one-year suspended jal
sei^ence, and their hmttittg md filling
prnrifeges suspended for three years. The
dead, nmatme e^le was iband near the
ftfimiini|T|Ti River in Pen^r Cuunly, mo. on
February 26.

The Vfissouri Department of Conser-
vation was notified, and it was soon deter-
mined diat die bird had been shot with a
-22 calibre rifle. It had been banded by the
U.S. fish and VVUdlife Service as a nestling
in northern Wlsconan on Jvme 8, 1980.

A joint investigation was initiated bv
state and FWS agents. A local news re-
lease about the eagle shooting gyneialed a
number ot leads provided bf ooncefned
citizens. After foOowing op on the leads
and conducting numeroas interviewst,
agents submitted a report to the U.S. At-
tocney's office in St. Louis, and that office
fikd >Jwges in U.S. District Court in St.
Louis against the two men for killing the
ea^ in violation of the Federal Eagle Ad,
which protects bald and goiden ea^es.
The bald eagle is classified as an endan-
gered species in most states, indodiog
\Gsso(iii, and either endangered or threat-
ened in every state except Alaska.

New ID Marking on Blackbirds
Aids Sunflower Crop Damage Research

Red-winged blackbirds in bnited num-
bers were taken for scientific purposes
by state and federal wildlife officials in
several northcentral arul western states
last spring as the birds migrated from win-
tering locations to breeding grounds. This
action was part of continuing efforts bv
U.S. Fish and VVUdlife Service (FW5) re-
search biologists to learn specifics of sea-
sonal movements of the biacktaiids as
these relate to fall sunfkrwer crop daonge
in the Dakotas and Nfinnesota.

Samples of migrating breedii^ black-
birds taken in Iowa, Kansas, Kfissooii,
Nebraska. North and South Dakota, Wis-
consin, and Minnesota and sent protnpttv
to Ae FWS's Denver Wildlife Research
Center (DWRQ were examined under
ultraviolet tight for identification mark-
ings not visiWe to the naked eye.

Scientists at the research center were
looking for birds nvarked earlier this year
by a new^ method at two wintering roost
sites near Squaw Creek National Wildlife
Refuge m northwest VCssoun. They hope
36 to leam the migration routes taken and lo-

cations Of bfeedn^ marshes used 1^ the
marked bffds-

The new method used to mark birds for
later identification was devefaped over
four years at DWRC. it allows huge
numbers of bads to be marked m a rela-
tively short time by hefioopter. Masses of
roostmg hsds were spnyed uritha hamt-
tess finoRscent point p^gmait with the
substance of lakiim powder and visMe
only under nhiavialet ^^

Research Kologist &lwafd Kiottle of
DWRC said five to nine n^Bon male red-
wn^ed btatilwds were marked in north-
western !)Assaari with the new lechniqae
this year. Only about 75,000 biaddnds
were marked over the past do 20 years
by DWRC scientists using the usual
method of applying legbands one at a
tMne k^ hand to mifividuai buds caught
for that purpose.

Knitfle befieves the new method wfli
lead ipiii Hy to greater knowledge of red-
wMiged lilai Hiiid popublians and their
overaH distiJwtion in the central U.S.,
their seasonal movenHnls;, and locations
of their wvrter roosimg and spring breed-
ing sites. He said this knowled^ is an
essential step in fimfcig uwaiis to efhsL-
UitJy oontral red wiugied Uackbud dant-
age to siiiifli WW' i orops-

Two Fwdjiigfied Fishes Believed Extinct

Two Great Lakes fishes have been pro-
posed far removal fiotn die endangered
species list because they are presumed
extinct, the U.S. Fish and Widflife Service
has armounoed. Removal of die two fishes
would bring die nuuibei of U.S. species
faiedas"rndwigp'i>if"or*Uawalenwl'to
289. Ihe fishes, die blue pace and longiaw
Cisco, once helped to suppoit sobstviiial
HBiwiffrtal fishenes. No specimens of
either haw! been liuuiidaiuuithelaleBfiQs-

Bfae pice, a subspecies of waltic,
laslfii aly wul faond in Lakes &ie aaid
Ontario and in die ^QagaIa River. Sindar
in appearance to walleye except far dieir
bine color, they weighed 1^ to 2 pounds
and grew 1^ to 16 inciies long. Blue pike
were numerous in the late MKks, but by
1913 the catch began to show extreme fluc-
tuations between abundance and scarcity;
in 1956 the CDOu»eraal fishery ooBafwrd

Fishery biiiiigias belcve diat over-
fishing led to the popidalun HiwliialMMis
and eventual crash of the fishery by dis-
rupting the blue pike's natural balance
between production and mortakty. Preda-
tion by and muipetilion vrith rainbow
stnelt, an introduced species, also may
have been detrimental to bine p&e. The

fishery's frJafwr in I95B may have been
due to oiygen depletion, paiticnlaily m
vrestem Lake Erie. Hybridization with
vfaleye may have been lesponsUe farthe
&ial disappearsice of the lemaining stock
ofUuepfte.

The longiaw CISCO grew to be about 12
to 15 inches long and weighed about a
pound, and occurred in Lakes Michi-
gjBi, Huron, and Erie. Along with other
deepwater ciscoes. they were valued as a
smoked fish and stqiported a stdstantial
fishery unt3 about 199). They were cang^
by gjhels set in water hum no to 300 feet
deep. As the ciscoes decreased in abun-
dance, net mesh sbx vras decreased,
wfaicfa caused further depletion of the
population. Habitat degradation, par-
ticularly in Lake Erie, piedation by sea
lampreys, and competition with 'rfrlBrr
ciscoes, alewife, anid rainbow smelt are
be&eved to have fuithci reduced cisoo
iiuuibcis. Recent icseaich has mdicatcd
that some species of Cisco in die Great
Lakes may have hybridized and are not
presently genetitaBv iiolaled.

The longiaw cisoD was fisted as en-
dar^eied in 1967 and the bhie pdce in 197D,
and a recuveiy team was estabfished far
Une pike. However, since no specimens
of eitfier fish could be found, there vras
fittle that could be done under the Endan-
gered Species Act to help the species
recover, fai 1977 die Bhie Pike Reoovciy
Team contacted aD State fish and game
^encies in the Uniled States to detemine
if Hue pOoe existed in dnrwateis. After
aD responded negatively, die recovery
team concluded that the species was
extinct and recommended removing it
from the endangered species list. No
recovery team vras ever estabfished far
longiaw Cisco. A status review of bodi
species, initiated in 1979, turned up rw
1 to milk'ate that die two spe-

If the fishes are removed fiom the en-
dangered species list 3s proposed, federal
agencies would no longer be required to
oonsidt widi the Fish and WUHe Service
to determine if dieir activities in the Great
Lakes region a»e Hoely to adversely afiect
the two species.

The Fish and Wiklfife Service is re-
qnestir^ poMc oommenis on biological or
odier relevant data on any bbw pice or
longiaw asoo populations which may st9
east, and any adifition^ mfamatun oon-
oemii^ hBtonc range and dislubutwn of
these species. Comments should be ad-
dressed to Regional Director. U.S. Fish
and Wlkflife Service, Federal Buddn^
Fort SneOing, Twin Cities, Minnesota
55111.

Public Scores Low in Wildlife
Quiz, Study Shows

Most Americans don't know very much
about animals or wildlife conservation
issues and are more likely to see wild
animals on television or in zoos than in the
wild, according to a study conducted for
the Interior Department's U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service.

The study, which has important impli-
cations for wildlife conservation and man-
agement fjrograms, was conducted by Dr
Stephen Kellert of Yale University in the
fall of 1978 and involved interviews with
3,107 adult Americans. Kellert reported his
initial findings in 1979, and has recently
published two new reports on his data.

Among Kellert's findings were the
following:

• Most Americans know relatively little
about animals. Although coyotes are often
killed in western states to protect live-
stock, 75 f>ercent of those surveyed did not
know that the coyote is not an endangered
species. Half of the public did not know
that the statement "spiders have 10 legs,"
is false, and only slightly more that half
knew that insects do not have backbones
and that veal does not come from lamb.

• Fifty-eight percent said they cared more
about the suffering of individual animals
than about species populaHon levels. This
is an important finding for wildlife manag-
ers, whose work is generally more con-
cerned with conserving populations of
animals than with the welfare of each indi-
vidual member of a species.

• Of all demographic variables, education
was the most sensitive indicator affecting
knowledge of animals. People with a
graduate education knew more about
animals than any other group and were
more interested in wildlife and more con-
cerned about the natural environment.
People with less than a sixth grade educa-
tion were almost the opposite of those
with graduate education in basic percep-
tions and understanding of animals.

• Differences between urban and rural
residents "may represent one of the most
difficult and imjwrtant problems con-
fronting the wildlife management field in
the 1980s," according to the study. Resi-
dents of rural areas generally know more
about animals, participate in more wildlife
activities, are more supportive of practical
uses of animals, and are less concerned
about "animal rights" issues than urban
residents. Residents of cities with popula-
tions of more than one million had ex-
tremely low animal knowledge scores,
and were more opposed to hunting and
predator control and more concerned
about humane or ethical treatment of
animals than rural residents.

• Forty-five p>ercent had fished during the
pn-eceding two years. The most common
reason for fishing was to eat fresh fish (28
percent). Twenty percent fished primarily
for sjjort.

• There are striking regional differences
in knowledge and attitudes about ani-
mals. Alaskans were the most knowledge-
able, followed by residents of the Rocky
Mountain states. Residents of the North-
east were the least knowledgeable. Pacific
Coast residents were more concerned
about ethical treatment of animals and
"animal rights" issues and were opposed
to hunting more often than residents of
other regions. Southerners tended to be
more interested than others in practical or
material values of animals.

• Watching animal television shows,
owning pets, and visiting zoos are Amer-
ican's most frequent animal-related activi-
ties. During the two years before they
were interviewed, 78 percent had
watched a wildlife television show, 67 p>er-
cent had owned a pet, and 46 f>ercent had
visited a zoo.

• Twenty-five percent of the sample had
hunted at some time during their lives,
and 14 f>eTcent had hunted in the two
years before they were interviewed. Fifty-
three fjercent of those who had hunted at
some time no longer hunt, primarily be-
cause of lack of opportunity. Forty-three
p>ercent hunted primarily to obtain meat,
37 percent for sp>ort or recreation, and 11
p>ercent to be close to nature.

• Twenty-five percent said they had bird-
watched in the preceding two years. Of
these, three percent were "committed"
birdwatchers who could identify more
than 40 species. Contrary to the p)opuIar
stereotype of the little old lady in tennis
shoes, the average committed birder was a
42-year-old male.

Formalin Pronounced Safe
for Treatment of Fish Diseases

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has
cleared the way for the lawful use of for-
malin in fish culture after nine years of
intensive research that proves the
compound can be used without harm
to fish, consumers, or the environment.

"Fish culturists agree that it's almost im-
possible to raise important food and sport
species such as catfish and trout without
formalin to control external parasites and
fungal infections," says an agency spokes-
man. "Thus, our efforts to get this chemi-
cal registered have represented one of the
service's primary fishery research respon-
sibilities for nearly a decade."

Formalin has been known to fishery ex-
perts since 1909, when it was used to con-

trol parasites on rainbow trout. In time,
the compound became the most widely
used chemical in the treatment of fish dis-
ease because of its versatility and effec-
tiveness. Use of the drug was lawful until
the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act
was amended in 1972, to require registra-
tion of all drugs and chemicals used on
food animals. After receiving a permit for
experimental use, the service undertook
the necessary research to register formalin
for fishery use. Now, formalin can be law-
fully used by federal, state, and private
fish culturists to control parasites of trout,
catfish, salmon, largemouth bass, and
bluegjDs; and to control fungus on sal-
mon, trout, and pike eggs.

The most common external parasite that
plagues fish is khthyophthirius, or "ich."
Formalin can cure "ich," which can infect
all freshwater species including home
aquarium Sfjecies — a $60 million industry.
All fish are more prone to disease after be-
ing handled, as their natural protective
coating of slime is gone. Then disease can
spread rapidly; for example, Saprolegnia
fungi can infect and kill virtually all fish or
eggs in an enclosure within 24 hours. Both
Saprolegnia and Ichtyobodo ("costia"),
which infects fish gills, can be successfuUy
treated with formalin.

Formalin is a liquid formaldehyde solu-
tion which is heavily diluted for fish cul-
ture use. The standard concentrate is 37
percent formaldehyde, and it is further
weakened to a fraction of its original
strength before it is used on fish or eggs.
The service investigated possible hazards
to fishery workers in the course of its re-
search and found no problems when
profjer precautions were taken.

The service's formalin-related research
has been guided by the agency's National
Fishery Research Laboratory at La Crosse,
Wisconsin. Studies were designed to an-
swer a broad range of questions about the
possible drawbacks of its use. Potential
side effects on fish that were ruled out in-
cluded birth defects, cancer, and chromo-
somal damage that could cause mutants.
Other research measured the amount of
residue in treated fish, the compound's ef-
fects on plants, and chemical interactions
with pollutants and other products in
the water

FIELD BRIEFS

Carolyn Blackmon Elected to
AAM Committee Chairmanship

Carolyn Blackmon, chairman of the Muse-
um's Department of Education since 1978,
was elected to the chairmanship of the Ed-
ucation Committee of the American Asso-
ciation of Museums at its annual meeting
in Philadelphia in June.

Mrs. Blackmon came to Field Museum
as a volunteer in 1968 and in 1971 became
acting coordinator for Harris Extension,
which provides exhibits on a loan basis to
Chicago-area schools. From 1972 to 1975
she served as coordinator of Special Edu-
cational Services for the Department of
Education; from 1975 to 1977 she was head
of Program Development and in 1977 be-
came head of Public Programs.

imowisiniOF

WOMllHSfORr

New Girl Scout patch

New Girl Scout Patch Program

The Girl Scouts of Chicago, in collabora-
tion with Field Museum's Department of
Education, has developed a new patch
program for Girl Scouts entitled "Field
Museum Exploration." The patch require-
ments include several planned visits on a
group basis to the Museum as well as
related troop meeting discussions and
activities. To earn the patch the scouts
will also develop and exhibit a natural
history project.

The Girl Scouts of Chicago was estab-
lished in 1922, with current membership
(ages 5-17) at more than 18,700, compris-
ing 1,200 troops.

Fifth Annual Festival
of Anthropology on Film

See pages 19-22 for
complete schedule

Carolyn Blackmon

James H. Swartchild
1910-1982

James H. Swartchild, a Field Museum vol-
unteer since 1975, died recently at the age
of 71. A skilled photographer, he recorded
with his camera a great many Field Mu-
seum events, notably Women's Board acti-
vities, and photographed thousands of
artifacts in the Museum's collections.
During each of his seven years at Field
Museum he devoted more than 600 hours
of service.

Swartchild was a director and past pres-
ident of the Chicago Jewelers Association.
He is survived by his wife, Catherine; two
children, Gail and James Jr; and five
grandchildren. His brother, William G.
Swartchild, is a Museum trustee and past
chairman of the Board of Trustees.

Kellogg Grant Focuses on Field Museum
as National Center for Museum Studies

A fellowship/internship program has
been launched by the Field Museum to
expand the educational role of museums
in society. The project is funded by a
three-year grant of $405,750 from the W.
K. Kellogg Foundation, of Battle Creek,
Ml. Monies from the grant will support
one-week fellowships at the Museum for
museum educators, and two series of
seminars for museum educators, curators.

and designers on the "team" approach
to exhibit development. Field Museum
staff will serve as faculty during these
seminars. Carolyn Blackmon, chairman
of the Department of Education, is pro-
ject director.

The fellowships and internships will
cover topics such as goal-setting, policy
formulation, museum mission, space
resources, exhibit design, and assessing
the needs of the local community and the
adult learner.

The W. K. Kellogg Foundation, estab-
lished in 1930 "to help people help them-
selves," has distributed more than $585
million in support of programs in agricul-
ture, education, and health.

Cole Named Anthropology Head

Glen H. Cole, curator of Old World prehis-
tory, assumed the chairmanship of the
Department of Anthropology on July 1,
succeeding Phillip H. Lewis, curator of
primitive art and Melanesian archaeol-
ogy, who had chaired or co-chaired the
department since December 1975.

Cole received his bachelor's degree
from Reed College, his master's and Ph.D
from the University of Chicago, and he
joined the Field Museum staff in 1965. His
research has focused on East African pre-
history and he has done field work at a
variety of sites in East Africa.

Glen H. Cole

September &> October at Field Museum

September 16-October 15

Continuing Exhibits

"The People and Art of the Philippines." Through December
31. A stunning exhibit containing some of the finest examples
of Philippine art from prehistoric times to the present. The
420 objects have been gathered from 29 private sources and
museums, including the Field's fine collection. Special
emphasis is given to the prehistoric ceramics and gold,
church art from the Spanish colonial period, wood sculpture
from the northern tribal peoples and exquisite woven,
beaded, and embroidered textiles from southern Philippine
peoples. Hall 26, second floor

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast."
Field Museum's landmark permanent exhibit compares and
contrasts the way Eskimos and Northwest Coast Indians
have adapted to widely differing environments along the
continuous northern Pacific and Arctic coastlines. The two
groups have flourished since prehistoric times by harvesting
the riches of the oceans. The five sections of the exhibit use
displays, films, and full-sized replicas to depict the origins,
food-gathering techniques, social life, spiritual beliefs, and
art of these peoples. Here is an exhibit so big you'll want to
return to it often for new insights into how these unique
cultures existed in harmony with their surroundings. Hall
10, first floor

Marine Mammals. Visit these life-sized dioramas to familiar-
ize yourself with the intriguing animals which are the subject
of October's Familv Features and Discovery Programs. The
pale light of the setting Arctic sun in the walrus diorama
suffuses the hall, giving it the watery look of underwater
regions where sea mammals might be found. Enjoy scenes
of otters or seal parents playing with their young, see under-
water views of the horned narwhal and the odd-looking
manatee, and marvel at the bulk of a 5,000-pound male
elephant seal. Hall N, lower floor.

^j-^-
.<•>- ~

New Programs

Fifth Annual Festival of Anthropology on Film. This year's
program will feature some of the most popular films of the
first four festivals, new works by Chicago filmmakers, and
rare archival films of early Field Museum expeditions. See
pages 19-22 for details. Advance tickets are available from
the Education Department, Monday through Friday, 9 a.m.
to 4 p.m. or may be purchased at the door Tickets are:
Members, $6; nonmembers, $7 per day. Members, $10;
nonmembers $12 per series. Sat. &= Sun., Sept. 25 &> 26.

Edward E. Ayer Film Lecture Series. Ti-avel around the world
via film every Saturday and Sunday in October and Novem-
ber. Narrated by the filmmakers themselves, these free
90-minute film/lectures are recommended for adults. The
films begin at 1:30 p.m. in the James Simpson Theatre.
Admission is through the West Entrance. Members
receive priority seating. Oct. 2: "Austria," Oct. 9: "Hawaii,"
Oct. 16: "Scotland."

Ray a. Kroc Environmental Field Trips. These one-day field
trips with a knowledgeable leader go to local areas of bio-
logical or ecological interest. They begin September 11 and
are offered weekends through October. See field trip brochure
for details. Early registration by mail is strongly advised.

Continued on back cover 39

September &> October at Field Museum

Continued from inside cover

Adult Education. Registration is now open for the fall courses
which begin October 18. The Learning Museum course will
be "Latino Images: The Other Americans." See pages 30-33
as well as the Fall Adult Education brochure for details.

Fall Journey. This self-guided tour of Field Museum's diora-
mas and other exhibits mirrors what you can see outside in
Chicago during the fall season. Free Journey pamphlets
available at Museum entrances.

"Extinction," a Kroc Environmental Lecture bv Dr Paul
Ehrlich. Sunday, October 17 at 2 p.m. Watch for details of
this important lecture by one of the world's leading ecologists
in next month's Bulletin.

being planned around sea mammals. History and legends
once depicted them as mermaids or monsters of the deep,
but recent scientific research into the social lives and com-
munication systems of whales, dolphins, seals, and otters
have shown them to be complex, highly intelligent creatures.
Look for a complete schedule in the Education Depart-
ment's Calendar of Events or the Weekend Sheet available
at Museum entrances.

Weekend Events Line. A prerecorded telephone message
gives up-to-date information about such weekend events as
Discovery Programs, Family Features, films, and special
programs. Call (312) 322-8854 weekends.

5th Annutil Festival
ijff Anthropology on Film

QVe^

^iv-'*®

September 25, 26
seepages 19-22

Continuing Programs

Weekend Discovery Programs and Family Features. New
vistas of natural history will be opened to visitors who attend
these tours, films, slide programs, and participatory acti\a-
ties. September's programs will focus on traditions from
various cultures. In October a whole range of programs is

Museum Hours. The Museum is open daily from 9 a.m.
to 5 p.m.

The Museum Library is open weekdays from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m.
Closed Columbus Day, October 11. Obtain a pass at the
reception desk, first floor.

Museum Telephone: (312) 922-9410

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin

October 1982

Members' Nights

October 7 and 8
6:00—10:00 p.m.

Field Museum

of Natural History

Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd

Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr

Editor/ Designer: David M. Walsten

Production Liaison: Kathryn Hargrave

Calendar: Mary Cassai

Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

Board of Trustees

Life Trustees

James J. O'Connor

Harry O. Bercher

chairman

Joseph N. Field

Mrs. T. Stanton Armour

Paul W. Goodrich

George R. Baker

Clifford C. Gregg

Robert O. Bass

Samuel Insull, Jr

Gordon Bent

William V. Kahler

Bowen Blair

William H. Mitchell

Willard L. Boyd

John M. Simpson

Stanton R. Cook

J. Howard Wood

O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr

Thomas E. Donnelley II

Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells

William L. Searle

Edward Byron Smith

Robert H. Strotz

John W. Sullivan

William G. Swartchild, Jr.

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken

E. Leland Webber

Julian B. Wilkins

Blaine J. Yarrington

CONTENTS

October 1982
Volume 53, Number 9

Members' Nights: October 7 and 8

Getting There

Former paleontologist Elmer S. Riggs journeys to South

America in preparation for his first field work there

bv Larrv G. Marshall 4

Field Museum Tbur to Baja California and the

Sea ofCortez J3

Cetaceans, Pinnipeds, and Sirens of the Sea

Specially featured during October Weekends 14

Field Museum's Panda and the Kelley-Roosevelts
Expedition of 1929

bv David M. Walsten tB

Paul Ehrlich Lecture (October 17)

Paul Winter Consort Performance (October 22) 20

Edward E. Ayer Film Lecture Series

The Battle Against Dutch Elm Disease

bv David M. Walsten 22

Field Briefs

October and November at Field Museum 27

Calendar of coming events

COVER

View of Anderson Lake, Nicolet National Forest, Wisconsin.

Photo bv Bob Brudd, Tinlev Park, Illinois.

Egypt Tour for Members

Januan' 7-26, 1983
$4,200, double occupancy

An unforgettable visit to the land of the pharaohs, including an
U-dav Nile cruise aboard a chartered yacht. The tour leader is Del
Nord, a distinguished U.S. Egv'jitologist. For details, write Field
Museum Tours, Roosevelt Road and Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL
eOfiOS, or call Domthv Roder at the Tours ofTice, 322-8«G2.

Field Museum of hialural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is publistied monthly, except combined
July/ August issue, bv Field Museum of Natural History. Roosevelt Road at Lake Sliore Drive,
Chicago, U. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are Iheir own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
phone: (312) 922-9410. Postmaster: Please send from 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History,
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:aai5-07Q3

A Special Invitation to Members

The 1983 Field Museum Calendar is now
available to Members on a special advance
order basis. This year, in addition to
receiving your regular copy of the Cal-
endar, you will be able to purchase gift
copies of the Calendar issue for friends
and family!

The 1983 special Calendar issue spotlights
Botany, and includes 12 pages of color
illustrations as well as a beautiful color
cover. For this limited offer, the purchase
price is $3.50 each, which includes the 10%
discount to Members, postage and han-
dling costs. There is an additional 10% dis-
count for orders of 25 copies or more.

There is no better way to say Happy Holi-
day all year long than with this beautiful
Calendar from Field Museum. So place
your order now — and remember, all gift
orders must be received by November 15,
1982.

Order form on reverse side.

PHOTO BY WILLIAM BURGER

1983 FIELD MUSEUM CALENDAR

Please send me copies of the 1983 Calendar at $3.50 each. (This price includes Members discount,

postage and handling costs)

Total amount enclosed $_

Orders must be received by November 15, 1982.

Calendars will be mailed by December 1, 1982.

For further information, please contact the Museum Store at 922-9410.

Please send this form with your check, made out to Field Museum to:

Calendar Gift Offer
Field Museum of Natural History
Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr.
Chicago, II. 60605-2499

Name

Street

City State.

Zip Phone

Have you ever wanted to make your own fossil
fish? Or learn about scorpions, centipedes, and
spiders? Then be sure to come to Members'
Nights on Thursday, October 7, and Friday, October 8,
from 6:00 to 10:00 p.m. (Third floor opens at 7:00 p.m.)
Entertainment for Members' Nights will feature the
Natyakalalayam School performing dances from India,
under the direction of Hema Rajagopalan. These voung
girls in native costumes perform both pure and expres-
sional dances which are as graceful as they are intricate.
Well-received at our Asia festival, they are sure to delight
both youngsters and adults.

Another act, featured at our Asia Festival and return-
ing by popular demand, is Han Hua So, the amazing
16-year-old Chinese acrobat. This young woman, who
amazed us with her "Bowl Balancing" act^ will again
perform her dazzling feats in Chinese ballet gymnastics.
Appearing from Chicago's Degerberg Academy will
be Nate Defensor and Jim Wauchon, who will demon-
strate Philippine martial arts. Sticks, knives, and swords
as well as the open hand are used in these arts, which
have been described as the most highly developed wea-
pons arts in the world. Passed from generation to gener-
ation, they were banned in the Philippines 400 years ago
but are today enjoying renewed popularity. The demon-
stration will keep you spellbound!

Your Name in the Egyptian ABC's.

Second Floor: Members' Preview of "The Last and First

Eskimos" (a photographic exhibit); "The People and Art

of the Philippines," our current traveling exhibit.

Third Floor: Architectural Curiosities; Art, Death and

Life in New Ireland; Make Your Own Fossil Fish; Scanning

Electron Microscope: Vision into the World of the Tiny;

Plants of the Bible.

Fourth Floor: Various Aspects of Exhibit and Graphic

Design; Silk-Screening Demonstration; Exhibit Production.

Free parking is available in the north Museum lot
and the Soldier Field lot. Or use the free round-trip charter
bus service between the Loop and the Museum's south
entrance. These CTA buses marked Field Museum will
originate at the Canal Street entrance of Union Station
and stop at the Canal Street entrance of Northwestern
Station, Washington and State, Washington and Michigan,
Adams and Michigan, and Balbo and Michigan. Buses
will run circuits beginning at 5:45 p.m. and continue at
15-minute intervals until the museum closes. (Buses will
travel to the train stations until the departure of the last
train. Please check vour train schedule for the exact times.)

Reasonably priced dinners and snacks will be
available in the Museum food service area from 6:00
to 8:00 p.m.

To achieve a more even distribution of visitors, we
suggest you follow this alphabetical schedule:
A through L: Thursday, October 7
M through Z: Friday, October 8

Admittance will be by invitation, so please retain
your Members' Night invitation and present it at the
door for admittance for you and your family.

We look forward to seeing you! 3

Getting There

The journal of former paleontologist Elmer S. Riggs recounts
the pleasures, annoyances, and frustrations of expedition

logistics sixty years ago

by Larry G. Marshall

"... lying awake in our bunks among the sage-
brush of Wyoming to enjoy the coolness of a
desert night," reminisced Elmer Riggs of his field
trip days as a student, "looking up into the starry
canopy above, we planned an undertaking
which each of us was sooner or later to carry out
under the constellation of the Southern Cross."

Paleontologist Riggs, who served on the
Field Museum staff from 1898 to 1942, saw that
dream of collecting in the Southern Hemisphere
come true in 1922, when plans for an expedition
to southern Argentina (the Marshall Field Pale-
ontological Expedition to Patagonia, 1922-24)
were approved. Riggs and two assistants, John
B. Abbott and George F. Sternberg, left Chicago
on November 6 of that year; but travel sixty years
ago was agonizingly slow and more than eight
weeks passed before the men were at a collecting
site and able to begin scouting for fossils.

The following account, drawn mostly from
Riggs' personal journal, covers that frustrating
period before Riggs, Abbott, and Sternberg
arrived in the field — when the men, impatient to
do their collecting, had to abide the endless
delays and red tape of foreign travel. But there
were good times too; the pleasures of making
new friends and the adventure of fresh expe-
rience in a strange land.

The Departure
Chicago to New York

November 6, 1922, Chicago. The day of starting on
our long-planned journey to South America has
arrived. All of the rush and strain of preparation
of ceaseless work, days, nights, and Sundays
has been leading up to this.

*Larry G. Marshall is with the Department of Geosciences of
the University of Arizona, Tucson. Later ivork hy Riggs in
Argentina and Bolivia was treated hy Marshall in the March
and May 1978 issues of the Bulletin.

Monday morning, I am up at 6:00 and am
off for the Museum at 7:15. Personal clothing is
all packed and the men are closing up the trunks
of equipment. Abbott is handling the packing,
and Sternberg will take over the trunks and
attend to checking. At 9:00, Miss Prosser brings
the report that Dr. Farrington* is in the Museum.
This requires conference in deference to this
office, and some delay.

Now comes the report that Martin, the
teamster, has fallen dead on the way and Par-
melee's Express Company is called to deliver
our trunks at the station. Sternberg locks my
keys in my suitcase. In locking the photographic
chest, my keys are missed and an excited search
and exasperating delay follows. Sternberg is
sent to the basement to open my suitcase and
there the missing keys are found.

A hasty call on the Museum Director, [D.C.
Davies], a visit to close accounts with Mr. Bridge,
the Museum auditor, to mail some letters, and
then lunch in the Museum cafeteria.

A few last good-byes, and at 1:20 a taxi is
called for me. $400 is drawn on letter of credit to
reimburse my personal account for a check given
Mr. Bridge, and I return to the Union Stahon
where I arrive 50 minutes before train time.

Twenty minutes before train time and in
comes Mr. Moore of the Museum with a message
that the Southern Cross, our steamer, has post-
poned sailing until November 15th. Then
Sternberg is sent to see if the baggage is aboard.
Nobody wishes to return — but, where is Abbott?

Sternberg and I are starting for the train
gate when six minutes before train time in comes
Abbott. We take him aboard without explanation
and are at last settled in our sleeper for the trip.

We pass out through the familiar suburbs
of the city with a feeling that we may not see
them for many months again. All have dinner

*OliverCummings Farrington, curator of the Department of
Geology, 1894-1933.

on the Pullman and settle down for a night of
rest after a nerve-racking day.

November 7, Pittsburgh. Awoke early to the con-
sciousness that we were at last on our way and
that all of the worries were over for a time at
least. Then remembering the bundle of money,
travelers checks, letter of credit, passport, etc.
rolled in my money belt and stowed under the
mattress at my head, a new realization of respon-
sibility came to me.

I dressed hurriedly as Sternberg came to
say "20 minutes to Pittsburgh." Our baggage
was checked while we went to find an eating
place. Letters mailed, we all went to Carnegie
Museum. Inquiring for Mr. O. A. Peterson [field
assistant during earlier Princeton expedition to
Patagonia] the door-man asked "Are you gentle-
men from Chicago?" To our answer in the affir-
mative, he advised that we were expected, in a
way that was both reassuring and hospitable.

Passing up the stairs to Peterson's study,
that genial gentleman came forward with the
glad hand and quickly drew up chairs for all.
Without more ado he launched immediately
into our South American plans. Returning a

favor, Peterson prepared letters to ranchmen
whom we would meet in Patagonia.

Novembers, Washington. Early we awoke, run-
ning through the hills between Harrisburg and
Baltimore with train an hour late. Upon arriving
in Washington, we went at once to the Saint
James Hotel where I first put up in '98. Then all
went to the National Museum. Mr. Gidley
[curator of vertebrate paleontology] soon came
in and we were shown about and talked speci-
mens until 1:00 when we went to lunch.

After lunch 1 went to look up the Argentine
Ambassador to get letters to admit our equip-
ment duty-free.

November 9, Washington. In the morning went
directly to the United States Geological Survey.
. . . Secured letters ... to corresponding officials of
the Argentine Geological Survey. Took train at
3:00, lunch at Philadelphia, and reached
Princeton at 8:30. Found lodging at private
house

November 10, Princeton, N.} Found Dr. Farr

and learned that Dr. Sinclair had been Curator
for some years Sinclair took us to the

Elmer S. Riggs (1869-
1963), was a member
of the department of
(Geology staff from
1898 to 1942. He led
twelve expeditions to
western United States,
two to Canada, and
two to Argentina and
Bolivia — spending
four years in South
America. 49132 5

Museum, opened cases, and furnished books.
In the evening after light in the Museum failed,
a careful examination of Hatcher's card cata-
logue* was made and his localities recorded
along with lists of specimens found in each.

November 11. The forenoon was spent on finish-
ing the hasty study of collections. The afternoon
was devoted to discussion of literature, while
Sternberg took an early train to New York.

November 12, New York. Arrived at Pennsylvania
Station at 7:10 p.m. and went by subway to Hotel
Endicott. Sternberg joined us at 9:00. Sunday
morning I went to Hoboken, New Jersey to
inquire about the arrival of our goods sent by
express, and to have the six trunks from Prince-
ton transferred from Jersey City to Pier 1,
Hoboken, the point of sailing. I visited the Amer-
ican Museum of Natural History but found the
upper floors closed on account of a flower show.
Returned to hotel and spent the afternoon and
evening writing.

November 13. All went to Battery park to have
passports visaed by Brazilian consul. Then
Sternberg went to docks to look after baggage
while Abbott and I called on Mr. Stadelman at
Marshall Field's and got the tickets. Too much
can not be said of Stadelman's courtesy and
care for our transportation in and entrance into
Argentina, and comfort on the way.

November 14. Sternberg went looking for personal
equipment while Abbott and I went to buy army
saddles, get new vaccination certificate from
Board of Health, and more photographs.

November 15. Date of sailing. Arose only half
rested after working until 1:00 a.m. in prepara-
tion for sailing. Took taxi for pier at 10:45, picked

up army goods on the way. Went aboard at
2:00. Personally supervised loading and distri-
buhon of baggage. Sailed at 6:30. Watched lights
as we went slowly down the bay, passed Bedloes
Island and the Statue of Liberty, then went below
to write letters. We were assigned two rooms
with bath between; Sternberg and Abbott in
room 111, and I alone in room 109. These quarters
have been found most comfortable and conve-
nient, thanks to Stadelman.

At Sea

New York to Buenos Aires

November 16. In the night I awoke to feel a gentle
rolling sensation and a cold wind blowing
through the port. We were passing through a
little squall which drowned out the sailor's quar-
ters where ports were left open.

November 17. The first thing is to bring my journal
entries down to date. This was planned as a
feature of the expedition but in the rush and
stress of the past few days has been neglected.
Now I am writing for the past ten days with
memory still fresh. Another piece of work
planned for this voyage is the Log, which
Fannie* has asked for as a daily narrative of our
voyage. This may be worthwhile for her and the
boys. Dinner at 7:00 and I am tired of writing.
After dinner a game of cards in smoking room
of upper deck.

November 18. Next thing I knew was the bugle
blaring out the first call. Then came to me the
soldier's complaint, "I'm going to kill that bugler
and throw his bugle overboard."

The air is mild and I have donned lighter
clothing. The sea is breaking a little and the

*]ohn Bell Hatcher first collected fossils in Patagonia in 1896.

*Riggs' ZL'ife

Traditional shuffle-
board — one of the main
diversions aboard the
6 Southern Cross. 48831

Plaza del Mayo in
Buenos Aires. Riggs
stayed at Avenida
Palace Hotel Heft). 43947

wind is summery. The seamen are setting up
the swimming tank of canvas on a spar frame. I
got out my Palm Beach suit and had it pressed.

After lunch, 1 lie down for a few moments
in my state room to rest, the warm air blowing
through the ports. This is luxurious and I con-
clude upon reading a few Spanish lessons. A
page or two and the book is dropped. The next I
know is the sound of softly swaying music. I
slowly awake to the conscious luxury of having
slept two hours in mid-afternoon. Not since a
child in my mother's cradle have I known such
a restful, quiet, rocking to sleep.

While at dinner the steward brought a wire-
less reading: "On board Saint Teresa. Good Luck.
Good-bye. Osgood." We answered, "Thanks.
All's well. Good-bye. Riggs." [Wilfred H.
Osgood, curator of Zoology at Field Museum,
was returning from South America.]

November 21. Arose early this morning to have a
swim in the tank. After a good breakfast, went
to upper deck and punched bag a while. Met
Mr. Foulds who is familiar with the Patagonian
coast. Told me that Mr. Halliday, to whom I
carry a letter from Peterson, is in business at
Santa Cruz dealing in Ford cars. He told me also
that coastal steamers [between Buenos Aires
and Rio Gallegos] ran irregularly from four per
week to ten or more days apart.

November 12. Met and talked with Reverend
Bauman, methodist minister. He advised us to
carry rifles south. Second mention of lawlessness
in southern provinces in Argentina. Says that
everybody carries arms there. Spoke also of
difficulty of a foreigner getting title to property.
Courts very corrupt. Men 95% anti-religious.
Look upon Catholic Church as cause of failure
to make progress North America has made. He
put it this way — "Puritans came to North Amer-
ica seeking God, Conquistadors came to South
America seeking Gold."

November 24. This was the great day on account
of crossing the equator. We crossed about 2:00
p.m. Neptune dinner at night.

November 25. Last night some of the passengers
asked me to give them a talk on fossil animals.
Most of the passengers came and listened in the
social hall for an hour. Talked general earth
history and finished with fossil animals of South
and North America.

November 28, Rio de Janeiro. About noon sighted
first land, two mountains 69 miles east of Rio.
Toward 3:00 p.m. Sugar-loaf mountain came
into view, then the harbor entrance. Delayed in
harbor until after sunset. About 8:30 we started
ashore.

Walked about until 10:30, very hot, stuffy.
Learned just how little we could make ourselves
understood in Portuguese.

November 29. At 2:40 we pulled away from the
wharf and swung out into the bay. The ocean
breeze has driven me below to change Palm
Beach suit for woolens and long undergarments.
How I shall chafe!

December 2, Montevideo. Awoke to find the
steamer entering the Rio de La Plata with the
city of Montevideo in sight. After breakfast we
went ashore. About 1:10 the steamer was backed
away by stern tug and once more we were out
in the river. The Rio de La Plata, celebrated in
story and in song, hardly justifies the name
"silver river. " A little grayer than the sea-water
we had become accustomed to, a wake of yel-
lowish mud was constantly stirred by the ship's
propellers, and we were told that our ship would
often scrape the bottom. The course was marked
by buoys.

Buenos Aires

December 3. Awoke to find ship coming to wharf
(after 17 days voyage and two days behind

Buenos Aires' Plaza
Congreso in 1922. 49950

schedule). After a comfortable breakfast we
went ashore, had baggage carried to custom
house by porter, examined, stamped, and re-
leased. Went to Avenida Palace Hotel. Rooms
fairly light with one window in each court. Mr.
Hopper took us over and introduced us at
American Club.

December 4. Kaiser met us at Custom-house to
take trunks through customs. Showed letter
from Embassy at Washington, but would not
pass trunks duty free. Advised us to see
American Consul.

As that office was open only in afternoon,
went to inquire about sailing to Rio Gallegos.
Dropped in on Mr. T. A. Lyman and deliver a
letter from Lawrence Armour of Chicago to
him. He took much interest, engaged passage
for us December 22nd to Rio Gallegos, advised
about banking, and undertook to clear our
baggage.

December 6. Today the Southern Cross sails for
New York. Had lunch at Y.M.C. A. At 2:00 went
to Department of Interior to deliver letter and to
ask for credentials to territorial governors.

Called on Mr. Campbell on way home and
learned that baggage was cleared of customs,
with some incidental expenses of cartage,
trouble, etc. Kaiser phoned to Museo de La Plata
and arranged for our visit there tomorrow.

December 7. Pleasant ride to La Plata, good lunch,
nice comfortable walk through park grounds.
At 2:00 entered Museum, had great doors swung
open to us and the Director ushered us into his
office. Had interchange of speeches, of cards,
met Dr. Santiago Roth, and Dr. Schiller.

We were greatly impressed with the extent
of the paleontological exhibits, the large number
of mounted skeletons, and especially the com-
pleteness of specimens from the Pampas For-
mation. The collection of human skulls was all
that its reputation led us to expect.

Returned to Buenos Aires at 6:00 p.m. to
find our photographs in the evening issue of El
Accieri with an account of our visit.

While in La Plata, Riggs was notified that a new
national law had been passed restricting the col-
lection of paleontological, palaeoanthropological,
anthropological, and archaeological specimens
by foreign institutions and their personnel.
Information concerning this law was broken to
Riggs gently by Luis Maria Torres, director of
Museo de La Plata.

The terms of the law were severe and it was
drafted by men who were employed to enforce it.
Provisions were made for the inspection of all
collections by the commission before they could
be shipped out of the country; any specimens

Museo de La Plata, La
Plata, Argentina. 48961

deemed new to science could be confiscated; half
of any series of desirable specimens could be
withheld; and the field work could be restricted
or certain localities barred. If rigidly enforced,
such regulations could greatly limit or vitiate
Riggs' proposed collecting efforts.

The law made it necessary for any foreign
expedition to place itself under the jurisdiction of
the Argentine government. The law provided for
establishment of an Argentine commission, con-
sisting of the directors of the principal Argentine
museums. The chairman of the commission was
Carlos Ameghino, director of the Museo Nacional
de Historia Natural in Buenos Aires. Because
Ameghino was in poor health, Torres acted in his
stead. As fate had it, the Field Museum expedi-
tion was the first to come under the new law, but
Torres personally assured Riggs that the expedi-
tion "would not be embarrassed," that he would
freely cooperate with it and secure the necessary
permit. In case of any new specimen, he assured
Riggs that the deposition of a plaster cast would
probably suffice, and also, that where specimens
were represented in Argentine museums,
nothing would be exacted from the collections
made by the expedition.

Collecting permits were sought from two
government departments. Although the neces-
sary permission was ultimately obtained, Riggs
was required to make monthly reports to the
commission. Twenty-three days were spent in
Buenos Aires getting through government red
tape to secure the necessary documents, and to
satisfy Argentine officials that Field Museum's
endeavor was honorable.

territorial governors. Kaiser brought them from
La Plata last evening. The forenoon has been
spent behind closed doors getting off a letter to
the Museum. It was sent in duplicate to Director
[Davies] and Curator [Farrington] from lack of
time to write two. The important matter con-
cerned permits, restrictions, etc. These letters
were rushed to mail in time for the sailing of the
American Legion.

December 22. Sailing from Buenos Aires for Rio
Gallegos. Had a hurried breakfast and returned
to lock trunks and pack hand baggage. Steamer
Asturiano sails at 3:00 p.m. Went to U.S. Consul
and registered, giving a full pedigree, and three
photographs.

Early December is summer in the Southern Hem-
isphere and the sheep shearing season in Patago-
nia. Absentee estancia owners and their families
who normally lived in Buenos Aires visit their
outlying properties for vacations and to super-
vise marketing of the wool. The Austuriano's
steerage was crowded with shearers, many from
Spain or Italy for the annual shearing season.

After three days sailing, the Asturiano arrived
at Puerto Madryn, the most northern port in
Pagatonia. The straggling town of one-story
buildings on a rugged shoreline was an introduc-
tion to what Riggs would see farther south.

December 21. Preparations for sailing to Rio Gallegos.
In the morning there remained the important
letters to be written to the ^luseum. This had
been held up awaiting receipt of letters to the

December 25. Arrival at Puerta Madryn. Awaken-
ing shortly before 8:00 the first glance out of the
port showed land. A low-lying sandy bar barely
two miles away. We entered the narrows of
Puerta Madryn. Soon the land closed in on the
right and within an hour the scattered buildings
of the town could be discerned through the
glass. The bluffs beyond, partially bare, appear
less than 100 feet above sea-level. They appear a

Elmer Riggs (center)
starids hy typical high-
wheeled Argentine
freight cart. 69480

brownish gray in the distance. This we later
observe is due to the growth of chica and other
scrub. No trees are seen.

About 10:00 a.m. we dock beside a long
pier built of black structural steel projecting V2
mile onto the bay [the only steel pier of its kind
in Patagonia]. A double track of narrow gauge
railroad traverses it. Our Welsh friends went
ashore to go by train to Trelew [some 50 km to
the southeast]. We all went ashore to find a
struggling town of wooden buildings with cor-
rugated iron roofs. A few were painted.

Later Abbott and I walked a mile along a
road leading toward the Mesa. We passed on
the outskirts a corral and road-house where two
South American high wheel carts with wool
were standing beside the road. A half barrel

which apparently served as a water cask was
swung under the iron axle. Other trappings
were hung at convenient places. The wool was
wrapped in burlap, forming bundles from which
scraggly wisps projected everywhere.

Farther along were three wagons, two of
the Argentine high-hind wheel type, the third
looked American. Under each wagon a man
was rolled in a dirty blanket, having a siesta.
On the hillside horses wandered seeking food
among the chico bushes.

A strange Christmas it was to us in the heat
of a sun-baked little port. Tired, I threw myself
on my cot and slept until 5:00 p.m. A half hour
later the breeze came in from the sea quite cool.

In the evening, at 8:30, we went to dining
room. Soon there was evidence of great prepa-

Lonwdoro Rivadavia,
central Patagonia's

oil port. 4S896

ration, and passengers with townsfolk came in.
By 10:00 the room was filled, music began, and
soon the waiters were removing tables to make
room for dancing.

The Captain led a first number. The tango
danced here is very slow and stately with pauses
and side movement. A feature of the gathering
was the cosmopolitan mixing of all classes. A
stout rural policeman in top boots did a patige
dance with a fleshy matron, much to the amuse-
ment of our English friends.

December 26. Sailing from Puerto Madryn. The
event of the morning was the appearance of the
enormous German excursion steamer Catalonia.
(She was headed through the Straits of Magellan
to the Chilean coast and due to return to Buenos
Aires by way of the Falkland Islands.) Shortly
before sailing I made photographs of town,
pier, Catalonia, and finally the harbor with ships
as we steamed out at 12:30.

low for large shipping. Some small islands lie at
the river mouth. A larger one known as Penguin
Island lies off coast farther south.

The party went ashore in a lighter and spent
five or six hours about the town. The buildings
are mostly of corrugated iron. The better huts
are of cut stone, or of cement finish. Automobiles
of Ford, Overland and other makes were every-
where on the streets.

December 29. San Julian. We are anchored since
6:00 a.m. in the river some miles from shore.
The land lies low inshore but there are buttes
200 or 300 feet in height to the north. Wool is
being taken aboard from large schooner-like
lighters.

December 30. Santa Cruz. This port, like San
Julian, are typical short-stop visits for north-
south bound steamers and were important ship-
ping ports for wool and hides.

A night run from Puerto Madryn brought the
Asturiano to Comodoro Rivadavia, the oil-port of
central Patagonia. On board were English and
American engineers and oil drillers bound for the
various camps located there. Comodoro was en-
joying a typical boom after oil was discovered
there in 1906, and was reported to have a popula-
tion of 20,000, inclusive of town and some ten
neighboring camps.

Comodoro is at the back of a wide bight,
with neither harbor nor pier. The ship anchored a
mile from shore, and passengers and cargo were
towed to shore in lighters. These entered the har-
bor in early morning, and discharged cargo con-
sisting largely of barrels of north Argentine wine,
potatoes and flour from Rosario, and coal from
Wales. Mingled with this was the household fur-
niture of families moving from port to port. If the
southeasterly winds chanced to be boistrous, as
they often were, ships would ride for days at an-
chor until the weather calmed, or would sail on
without discharging cargo. On one occasion dur-
ing the rough weather, Riggs saw passengers
hoisted ashore from lighters in a square of sail-
cloth by a steam derrick on the landing. The cliffs
behind Comodoro are much higher than those at
Puerto Madryn, and indicated great possibilities
for fossil collecting.

Puerto Deseado, reached on Thursday, De-
cember 28, is built on the rugged north bank of
the Rio Deseado, about two miles from the coast.
With a population of 2,000 it enjoyed the distinc-
tion of railway terminus for a line running 300 km
inland to Las Heras.

Rio Gallegos

At dawn on the last day of the year, December 31,
1922, and the ninth after sailing, the Asturiano en-
tered the mouth of the Rio Gallegos and set an-
chor offshore from the port town of Rio Gallegos.
At 8:30, a lighter towed by a sturdy steam launch
came out to greet the Asturiano. Passengers lined
the rail watching the lighter bobbing upon the
waves, bumping ship and ladder. Baggage was
lowered aboard and passengers were slowly and
fearfully passed down the ladder and swung to
the lighter by a pair of swarthy sailors.

A strong westerly wind lashed the harbor
waters into breakers and there, tossed about on a
choppy sea and drenched with spray, some of
the passengers became seasick for the first time.
Then the ship's steam launch came alongside
and picked up the lighter's hawser and took it in
tow, not alongside as had been done in quiet wa-
ters but with a long tow line. After 20 minutes of
buffeting and liberal sprinkling from salt water,
they ran on the beach a mile from the ship. A
steep sandy slope strewn with cobble stones and
covered with wet sea-mud from the last high tide
dipped down to the water's edge. Trunks, bags,
sea chests, and bundles of nondescript baggage
were born ashore and dumped in heaps by bare-
footed porters.

December 28, Puerto Deseado. Water is rather shal-

A miscellaneous crowd lined the shore. As I
approached a stack of trunks, boxes, chests,
and furniture, a tall young man asked, "Is this
Mr. Riggs?" Receiving my answer in the affir-
mative he offered a hearty handshake and
replied that he was Coleman of Chicago. Then

in quite a genuine manner he asked, "What can
I do for you?"

This hearty and friendly greeting did much
toward relieving a feeling of strangeness at being
dumped ashore amid the babble of a strange
tongue. Asking for a hotel and indicating that
we had been recommended to the Hotel Argen-
tina, he led us at once to the proprietor who
stood near. We took a waiting car to inspect,
while the other members of the party collected
our baggage. Later we all went to the hotel while
a cargador loaded our 16 pieces of baggage upon
a two-wheel cart with one horse in harness and
a second hitched to the frame.

The city of Rio Gallegos, the most southerly port
on the Argentine mainland, lies just north of the
Straits of Magellan. With a population then of
3,500, it is the capital of Santa Cruz Province. A
straggling town of one-story buildings, Rio Gal-
legos extends for a mile or more along the shore.
The better buildings were brick faced with ce-
ment, but most were constructed of corrugated
iron. Only one hotel was two stories in height. In
the poorer quarters buildings were constructed
of the flattened sheets of metal from kerosene
cans nailed to a wooden framework. The streets
were in part graded, though seldom paved. Rio
Gallegos is only slightly more important than
neighboring ports to the north, and has not the
distinction of a pier, dock, or railway.

Their hotel was built about an open court.
There were no outside windows, and the rooms
were lighted by means of glass doors leading to

the enclosed passageway. No provision existed
for heating the room artificially; when the sun
shone on the glass-covered areas it was quite
comfortable; otherwise one had to put on more
clothing or go to bed to keep warm.

The first days in Rio Gallegos were highlight-
ed by the cordiality of the English-speaking resi-
dents and their eagerness to lend a helping hand.
Through the kindness of the Swift Packing Com-
pany of Chicago, Riggs had been provided with
letters of introduction to G.C. Whitney, superin-
tendent of their plant at Rio Gallegos. Whitney
lost no time in calling on the party at their hotel
and in showing them about the city. He also pro-
vided a capable interpreter, Signor Grossi, reput-
edly the son of an Italian count, who introduced
them to the provisional governor. Colonel Isa,
and smoothed the way to obtaining those creden-
tials so essential to admitting one to confidence in
Argentine communities. The necessary creden-
tials were issued and the party directed to the de-
partment of rural police where each man was reg-
istered, fingerprinted, and measured. Yet, so well
was the matter handled, that they all spent a
pleasant half hour at the police station, staying for
tea.

Letters of introduction from Governor Isa to
a group of English-speaking sheep ranchers in
the area made the next step easy. On January 4,
Whitney with his car and driver, took Riggs and
party to the estancia of Don Carlos Felton, some
20 km from the town of Rio Gallegos. In the
months to come, Felton's estancia was to prove
one of the most productive localities to be worked
by Riggs and his party in the province of Santa
Cruz.D

12!(!

Abbott (left) and

Sternberg setting

' t lie first camp. 4««s3

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

Baja California
and the Sea of Cortez

February 19 to March 4, 1983

Just 50 miles south of the California
border is a subtropical paradise for
marine life — the Sea of Cortez.
Steeped in legend and history, Baja
California and the Sea of Cortez have
the mystique of the unknown. Virtu-
ally inaccessible by road until 1973
and with only 5 percent of the coast-
line yet accessible by road, Baja had
remained largely unvisited except by
the most dedicated of scientists and
sportsmen.

What they found, a treasure
house of life, you can now share from
the comfort of a first-class natural his-
tory cruise ship. Lyall Watson, author
of Whales of the World, has said, "there
is probably no other body of water in
the world where more species of ceta-
cean can be seen more clearly than
in the Sea of Cortez." Add to that a
fantastically rich seabird fauna, the
richest assemblage of shallow-water
marine life in the eastern Pacific, giant
barrel cacti, boojum trees, rock paint-
ings, rugged monoliths, and soaring
peaks and cliffs plunging vertically
into the sea, and you have a natural
history trip beyond comparison.

And that's only the first half!
The second week of this 14-day tour
includes a visit to the outer shore la-
goonal breeding and nursery areas of
the California gray whale. We will
spend two days approaching and
watching them at close range. Also in
the second week a visit to San Benitos
islands, home to colonies of elephant
seals, sea lions, and diverse bird life.
Accommodations for the trip will
be on board the 143.5-foot Pacific
Northwest Explorer, a one-class ship
of 99.7 tons gross weight. Built in
1980, air-conditioned throughout,
with all cabins outside and with

private facilities, this ship is ideal
for natural history observation in that
her 7y2-foot draft allows very close
approach to the land and high maneu-
verability while approaching whales.
Veteran Captain Robert Hempstead
has captained the ship in two previous
and highly successful (1981, 1982) sea-
sons of Baja coastal explorations.

Leading the tour will be Dr
Robert K. Johnson, curator of fishes
and chairman of the Department of
Zoology. A graduate of Scripps Insti-
tution of Oceanography, Dr. Johnson
has participated in two previous Baja
Circumnavigated tours. Special Expe-
ditions, a division of Lindblad Travel,
operators of the ship to be used, will
provide several additional naturalists
whose expertise will further enrich
our experience.

The following prices are from San
Diego and include overnight at Holi-
day Inn Embarcadero. Air fare is not
included. Lower deck, double cabin,
$2,650, single cabin $3,680; bridge
deck: $3,680; main deck: $3,540; up-
per deck: $2,990 or $3,680, depending
on size. We can arrange air transpor-
tation to and from San Diego or partic-
ipants can meet group at Holiday Inn.

For further information and a de-
tailed brochure please call Dorothy
Roder, Field Museum Tours, at (312)
322-8862 or write to Field Museum
Tours, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore
Drive, Chicago, IL 60605.

Dr. Johnsons article "Baja Circiimna\igated "
appeared in the October 1981 Field Museum
Bulletin.

:. 13

Cetaceans, Pinnipeds and
Sirens of the Sea

hales and all mammals of the seas have
fascinated people throughout history. Drauangs of
whales dating from 2200 B.C. have been found on
rocks in Norway. Aristotle noted in the 4th century
B.C. that the marine creatures of the Mediterranean
were warm blooded, breathed air, and produced live
young. The sacred temple of Delphi was, according to
pre-Minoan legend, named for a god that had
appeared in the form of a dolphin. The Northwest
Coast peoples of North America have for centuries re-
flected their close association to "skana," the orca
whale, in totem poles and silver carvings, and in clev-

October 2

2 p.m.

The California Grav Whale (16m) film presents biological
information on this mammal whose highly predictable habits
and migratory patterns nearly led to its extinction.

2:30 p.m.

Saga of the Sea Otter (25m) film. View this unique mammal
which possesses the ability to use tools. As a result of an inter-
national law established in 1911, approximately 1,200 of these
intelligent creatures are protected and surviye today in the
ofTshore kelp beds near Monterey, California.

3:00 p.m.

Sea Mammals, slide lecture. Ocean mammals figure promi-
nently in maritime legends. Explore the realms of fantasy and

erly executed masks used in dance ceremonies.

Each weekend of this October, Discovery Pro-
grams, Family Features, special lectures and perfor-
mances focus on these intriguing animals. Take a
close look at the social lives, habits, and communica-
tion systems of these complex sea creatures. Learn
about the current status of whaling, and discover the
secrets of jojoba — a plant whose oily fruit may help
end the slaughter of the sperm Avhale. Explore the
legend and dispel the myths about mermaids, sea
sirens and monsters of the deep.

fact about the manatee, dolphin, sea lion, and seal.

October 9

2:00 p.m.

Beluga Babv (25m) film. Watch the drama of the struggle for

life of a baby beluga whale born in captivity at the Vancouver

Aquarium.

2:30 p.m.

The Right Whale: An Endangered Species (24rrr) film. A docu-
mentary' of Roger Payne's research and study of the southern
right whale off the coast of Argentina. The film presents find-
ings about the physical characteristics, feeding, mating, raising
of young, communication, play, and locomotion of this rare
mammal of grace and power.

Ill I tuitions from Hislijirv Nnturclk' ties Cef.icpes (1804), bv C. S. Sonnini

October 16

noon to 2:00 p.m.

Tagging Whales Family Feature. Net a whale in Field Museum's
make-believe ocean. Then compare the whale you Ve landed
with our whale identification chart.

2:00 p.m.

The Orca Whale (28m) film. A study of the endangered "killer"
whale which shows this remarkably intelligent creature to be
agressive only when provoked. This film studies the orca
whale's breathing, communication, and navigation.

3:00 p.m.

Greenpeace — Voyages to Save the Whales film, question-and-
answer session follows. Documentary footage of one conser-
vation group's attempt to combat the present-day slaughter
of whales.

Museum for an unforgettable evening with the Paul Winter
Consort, whose music embraces the sounds of whales, eagles,
wolves, rivers, and oceans.
Members: $8.00; nonmembers: $10.00

October 23

2:00 p.m.

Whales, Dolphins and Men (52m) film. Scientists are studying
whales to determine their speed, how thev use sound to com-
municate, their abilit\' to see, how to train them, and how they
travel through water. This film exposes the brutal and barbaric
techniques of modern whaling and presents options to end
this senseless slaughter.

October 17

noon to 2:00 p.m.

Tagging Whales Familv Feature.

2:00 p.m.

Extinction special lecture. Dr. Paul Ehrlich discusses positive
proposals for human survival detailed in his most recent book.
Extinction. He documents the methods of extinction — over-
exploitation of a species for meat and fur, poisoning of life
support systems, and habitat destruction. Ehrlich makes it
clear that each species has a vital role to play in its ecosystem,
and all species deserve to exist in their natural balance.
Members: $3.00; nonmembers: $5:00

October 22

8:00 p.m.

The Paul Winter Consort, special performance. Come to Field

3:00 p.m.

Whales: Mysten^and Magnificence in the Deep slide lecture.
There is something special about cetaceans, something that
stirs our emotions, provokes our curiosities, and sparks our
imagination. This illustrated lecture provides you with an
overview of the world's whales, examines their present status,
and asks you to help protect their future.

October 30

2 p.m.

Jojoba (23m) film. Native to harsh, arid, and rockv lands this
wonderful plant promises an alternative solution to the unnec-
essar\' use of oil from the endangered sperm whale.

2:30 p.m.

The Great Whales (60m) film. At one time these magnificent
mammals were feared, hated, and hunted to near extinction.
Now the largest creature ever to have lived on earth is emerging
as a fascinating source of study for humankind. 15

Taxidermists Julius
Friesser (left) and
Frank Wonder com-
plete installation of the
l^iant panda diorama
in 1930. 81166

Field Museum's Panda

AND THE KELLEY-ROOSEVELTS

Expedition of 1929

bv David M. Walsten

In December, 1964, The Giant Panda, A Mor-
phological Study of Evolutionary Mechanisms
was published in the Museum's continu-
ing monograph series, "Fieldiana: Zoology
Memoirs." The 339-page treatise was the cap-
stone achievement of D. Dwight Davis (1908-65),
curator of vertebrate anatomy who died sud-
denly just weeks after its publication; the mono-
graph remains today the definitive work on the
anatomy of the giant panda, one of the rarest of
mammals.'

The giant panda specimens studied by
Davis included the skeleton of a male acquired
in China's Szechuan Province in 1929 by Field
Museum's William V. Kelley-Roosevelts Expe-
dition to Eastern Asia. This specimen, which
may be seen in a diorama in Hall 17 ("Asian
Mammals"), reputedly was the first to be

collected by hunters from outside China
(and obtained in an age before collecting
specimens by means of the rifle was generally
frowned upon).

Davis's monograph established the giant
panda as a member of the bear family (Ursidae).
He found sufficient differences from the rest of
the ursids, however — he called the giant panda
"a highly specialized bear" — to place it in a
subfamily by itself: Ailuropodinae, with

l.Only about eleven giant pandas are now in captivity
outside of The People's Republic of China: in the
Washington National Zoological Park, the Madrid
Zoo, the Zoological Society of London, Mexico's Cha-
pultepec Zoo, and Japan's Ueno Zoo. Madrid's
female giant panda gave birth to twins in September
of this year.

the rest of the bear family falling into the sub-
family Ursinae.^

But at the time of the Kelley-Roosevelts
Expedition, "no one knew exactly how this
animal should be classified, whether it was a
bear, a panda or an entirely new species," wrote
Theodore Roosevelt in Trailing the Giant Panda,'
the account of the venture he coauthored with
his brother Kermit. So for them the search was
particularly intriguing. "We had slight hope of
getting it," he wrote. "So slight in fact that we
did not let even our close friends know what
our real objective was."

Plans for the expedition had developed
almost casually:

"For some time after we got back from our
last expedition . . . everything was as peaceful as a
May morning. It did not seem as if there could be
anything more delightful in life than Oyster Bay
and our families. There was much to do for both
of us, and days passed like scenes in a cinemato-
graph. More than a year drifted by without our
noticing it. Then strange but familiar voices be-
gan whispering to us That was the beginning

of our downfall

"Almost without realizing it we started to
discuss where we should go next. Naturally we
turned to the blank spaces on the map, those fas-
cinating white blotches with perhaps the dotted
course of a surmised river marked and
"unknown" printed across them. These are
much fewer now than they were twenty years
ago, but such as they are they beckon just as
irresistibly

"Finally our eyes turned to that part of Asia
northwest of Indo-China, where the rugged ram-
parts of the Himalayas gradually descend to the

tropical coastal plains Kermit and I would

strike north into this country either through
Tibet or by the old Bhamo-Talifu trail, which runs
from Burma to Yunnan. Where we were travel-
ling through uncharted country we would make
a rough attempt to map it. After pressing in as far
as possible we would collect such of the animals
as we could. The Golden Fleece of our trip was
the giant panda

"Once the plans had taken shape the ques-
tion arose of financing the expedition. Neither
Kermit nor 1 have sufficient money to carry the
expense necessary for such a trip. We decided to
go to Chicago and tell our old friend Stanley

2. Theodore H. Reed, then director of the National
Zoological Park, stated in 1972 (in "What's Black and
White and Loved All Over?" National Geographic,
December, 1972) that "Smithsonian Instituhon scien-
tists have concluded that the giant panda and the rac-
coonlike lesser panda merit a separate family altoge-
ther. Chinese zoologists hold the same opinion."

3. Trailing the Giant Panda, by Theodore Roosevelt and
Kermit Roosevelt, Scribners, New York, 1929 (278 pp.)

Theodore Roosevelt,
Suydam Cutting,
and Kermit Roosevelt
(I. to r.), shown in
Yunnan. si433

William V. Kelley,
Museum trustee
1929-32 and expe-
dition sponsor. 83432

D. Dwight Davis

(1908-65), former

curator of vertebrate

anatomy and author of

definitive treatise on

the giant panda, sjim

Field, President of the Field Museum of Natural
History

"The moment we mentioned it to Mr. Field
he was enthusiastic. He gave us a dinner that
night at his house. There we met William V.
Kelley, a generous patron of the Museum.^ We
broached the subject to him and without a
moment's hesitation he told us he would stand
behind us and finance the venture."

As the region to be visited was known to be
bleak and mountainous, with poor roads and
not always friendly inhabitants, it was realized
that little time could be spent collecting fauna
and flora along the road to the interior. So to
make a more thorough biological survey, it was
decided to take along several trained naturalists,
some of whom could remain in one place long
enough to gather a representation of the plant
and animal life. For this reason the expedition
was organized in two divisions, each for the
separate regions.

The main division included the Roosevelts,
Suydam Cutting, a noted explorer and photog-
rapher; and Herbert Stevens, a British naturalist
who had much collecting experience in Assam
and Indochina. The Roosevelt group sailed
from New York on November 10, 1928.

The actual business of the expedition —
collecting — was begun at Tengyueh, Yunnan
Province, early in January. From Tengyueh, on
January 5, the expedition continued northward,

4. William V. Kelley was a Field Museum trustee
1929-32.

while Stevens followed slowly and collected
along the way, eventually rejoining the main
party. By rather slow and trying stages, with
mules and horses for riding and carrying the
equipment, over poor roads or mere paths in a
mountainous country, the expedition proceeded
toward the province of Szechuan, at one point
reaching an elevation of 16,000 feet.

The Museum's Annual Report for 1929
recounted the expedition's progress:

"As they worked northward, the hunters
made frequent inquiries regarding the occur-
rence of large animals, but until they reached Tat-
sienlu they were not encouraged to give much

time to hunting for the giant panda although

a few specimens from native sources had come
out to European museums, they had been in
most cases somewhat imperfect and poorly pre-
served. Reliable information about it was diffi-
cult to obtain, and it seemed quite certain that
even after its habitat was located it would be very
rare and hard to find. A first trial for it was made
in a region only two days' travel to the northward
from Tatsienlu, but this proved to be based on
false reports and the party returned to Tatsienlu.
On this short trip, however, several specimens of
the burrhel or blue sheep were obtained.

"On March 6, the party left Tatsienlu to pro-
ceed eastward to Mouping, where definite infor-
mation was forthcoming to the effect that at least
one giant panda had been seen and killed in that
region about ten years before. With this scant en-
couragement and with the knowledge that the
original discovery of the animal had been in this
vicinity, six days were devoted to intensive hunt-
ing in the hills near Mouping. This was laborious
work near the timberline and through heavy
bamboo growth in which one can see but a short
distance. Old traces of the animal sought were
found, but in spite of the best efforts of the
Roosevelts and fourteen native hunters who ac-
companied them, no large game was sighted. In
one place, however, they encountered a troupe
of the rare and beautiful monkeys known as the
golden or snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus)
and nine specimens were collected.

"From Mouping the expedition turned south-
ward to the old walled village of Yachow and
thence through fairly populous valleys to Tzetati
and Tsalo. Near this last place word came that the
giant pandas might be found in the country of
the Lolo tribe adjoining this Chinese outpost.
Hence a special hunt was arranged in the vicinity
of a place called Yehli at about latitude 29° 15'
north and a little north of the Chinese village of
Tachow. This took place on April 13 and was
crowned with success."

In Trailing the Giant Panda Kermit Roosevelt
described this segment of the expedition;

"We set off with four hunters. A thin misty
rain set in. It was a cheerless beginning for what

was destined to be our red letter day further

up the valley we turned off into a ravine. It was

only a short way further on that we came upon
giant panda tracks in the snow. The animal had
evidently passed a goodish while before the
snow ceased falling, but some sign that one of
the Lolos found was recent enough to thor-
oughly arouse all four natives

"The beishung [panda] appeared to be tra-
velling along in leisurely fashion, browsing on
the bamboos as he went. The amount of sign that
he left made us realize that we had been correct
in making a conservative estimate of the number
of beishung inhabiting the country beyond
Muping, in which we hunted

"The bamboo jungle proved a particularly
unpleasant form of obstacle course, where many
of the feathery tops were weighed down by snow
and frozen fast in the ground. Drenched by rain
and soaked by snow, whenever a moment's halt
was called we alternately shivered and panted.
For a few minutes the sun came out, and we were
in dread that it would melt the tracks, but after a
brief interval the murky clouds hid it again.

"We had been following the trail for two and
a half hours when we came to a more open jun-
gle. Tall spruce trees towered their giant bulk
above the bamboos. Lichen-covered alders were
dotted about. An occasional blue or yellow flow-
er poked its head up where the snow lay lighter.
Here the panda had turned his attention more
seriously upon provender. Under one tree he
had made himself a nest of bamboos. His claw
marks scored the bark, and we looked eagerly
among the sturdy branches to see whether we
could distinguish a black and white form crouch-
ing on a limb. His tracks led. . .first in one direc-
tion, then in another. Unexpectedly close I heard
a clicking chirp. It might have been a bamboo
snapping or the creaking of the interlocking
branches of two trees swayed by the wind. I re-
membered the eager interest of the Muping hun-
ters at hearing just such a sound. Noiselessly one
of them darted forward. He had not got forty
yards before he turned back to eagerly motion to
us to hurry.

"As I gained his side he pointed to a giant
spruce thirty yards away. The bole was hol-
lowed, and from it emerged the head and fore-
quarters of a beishung. He looked sleepily from
side to side as he sauntered forth. He seemed
very large, and like the animal of a dream, for we
had given up whatever small hopes we had ever
had of seeing one. And now he appeared much
larger than life with his white head with black
spectacles, his black collar and white saddle.

"Ted had started in a different direction with
another Lolo, so ... 1 eagerly signalled him.
Though in reality only a short time, it was a
nerve-wracking wait. The giant panda, dazed by
sleep, was not really aroused, and was walking
slowly away into the bamboos. If frightened it
could vanish like smoke in the jungle. As soon as
Ted came up we fired simultaneously at the out-
line of the disappearing panda

"A couple of the dogs that had been hunting

in the valley below now came bounding by us,
but they very evidently did not share their mas-
ter's opinions as to the innocuous character of
the beishung. They trailed, howling, behind us
and nothing could induce them to go ahead.
No help, however, was needed, for the chase
ended in seventy-five yards. He was a splendid
old male

"The shikaries [guides], the Lolos, and our-
selves held a mutual rejoicing, each in his
own tongue. Our great good fortune could only
with much effort be credited. We had hunted
hard and long, usually in the face of every
adverse circumstance.

"Great were the celebrations held that night.
The wife of the village headman ordered a sheep
to be slaughtered, and resolutely refused to
allow us to foot the bill. Intermingled with it all,
there was strongly pervading an element of
superstition. The beishung was at first not per-
mitted in the compound, and we were afraid that
we would have to skin it in the rain and snow and
mud. Religious scruples were at length so far
relaxed as to permit the shikaries to carry it into
an isolated hayloft. A deeply interested group
surrounded us at our work, but not an omnivo-
rous Lolo of the lot would touch a morsel of the

flesh after we left a priest was to be sent for

and an all-embracing ceremony of purification
would be held, to cleanse the house and its sur-
roundings from any shadow that the death of the
giant panda might cast upon it.

"The feasting lasted until the small hours

It was late when we crawled up into the hayloft
where our bedding was laid out. Never were the
sleeping bags more gratefully welcome. Al-
though we were past the age when "visions of
sugar plums" could "dance through our heads,"
black and white beishungs were never long
absent from our dreams that night. "

One of the most productive expeditions in
the Museum's history, the Kelley-Roosevelts
venture acquired a greatly varied collection of
the vertebrate fauna of a little-known part of the
world. The total number of zoological specimens
credited to the expedition was 15,397, of which
1,479 were mammals, 5,194 birds, 453 reptiles,
438 freshwater fishes, and 7,833 insects. In addi-
tion there were 2,400 sheets of plants. D

Paul Winter and wolf making music together

Spend an unforgettable e\'ening
with the Paul Winter Consort,
whose music embraces the sounds of
whales, eagles, wolves, rivers, and
oceans. In the 20 vears that Winter
has been performing, he has created
some of the most intriguing music
heard amnvhere.

The Paul Winter Consort at-
tempts to enhance our lives by mak-

ing us aware of the en\'ironment and
of the plight of endangered species.
Winter is a musical "hunter-gatherer,"^
spending his career in quest of
"the lixang sounds of nature and wild
beings, to bring life to historic and
ethnic traditions of music, and to
reawaken the natural resources of
harmonv and rh^'thm within people."
One of the group's most recent al-

The

Paul
Winter
Consort

Friday, Oct. 22
8:00 p.m.

James Simpson Theatre

bums. Callings, is comprised of
recordings that mate human notes
with the natural music of land and
sea mammals and birds.

We encourage vou to order
tickets in ad\'ance for this ver\' spe-
cial event. Tickets will be sold at the
w^est door on a space-available-onh'
basis. Call 322-8854 for more infor-
mation. Members: $8.00, non-
members: $10.00.

RAY A. KROC ENVIRONMENTAL LECTURE:

Extinction^ with Dr. Paul Ehrlich

Sunday, October 17, 2:00 p.m. James Simpson Theatre

How long can Homo sapiens sur-
\i\'e if we persist in destro\ing
other species? Ecologist Paul Ehrlich
has long warned that destruction of
natural habitats is accelerating the
rate of species extinction. Have we
now reached the point where the
future of humankind is threatened?
In this illustrated lecture Ehrlich
presents positive approaches for
sur\i\'al for our owti sfjecies and
all others.

Paul Ehrlich started his scientific
career as an entomologist. As his
research widened, Ehrlich became
concerned by evidence of habitat
i,iestruction which resulted in sjsecies
LXtiiiCtion. He became alarmed that
humaiikinrl's e.xploitation of other
.species was rapidh' diminishing the
.number and variet}' of life forms on
i^ur planet. The Population Bomb,

written by Ehrlich in the earlv 1960s,
drew attention to the need for pre-
serving natural resources.

Now Ehrlich s concern has
broadened. In his newest book,
Rxtinction, coauthored with his
wife, Anne, he questions how long
even the human sp)ecies can exist if
measures are not taken to preserve
the ecological systems supporting
our civilizations.

A professor of biologv' and pop-
ulation studies at Stanford, Ehrlich
is a well known e.xjjert on ecology
and evolution. From his studv of the
fossil record he realizes that species
extinction has alwavs occurred, but
estimates that the rate of extinction
of bird and animal spjecies has in-
creased between 5 and 50 times in
the past four centuries. Ehrlich pro-
jects the extinction rate will rise

some 40 to 400 times in the coming
decades.

Tickets are available at the West
Entrance to the Museum one hour
prior to the lecture; $3.00 for
members, $5.00 for nonmembers.

Paul Ehrlich

Edward E. Aver Film Lecture Series

FALL 1982

These 90-minute travel films are held every Saturday in October and November at 1 :30 p.m. in
James Simpson Theatre. Admission is free at the Museum's barrier-free West Entrance. Doors
open at 12:45 p.m. Members must bring their membership cards for priority seating privileges.
When the theatre has reached its full seating capacity, the doors will be closed by Security per-
sonnel in compliance with fire regulations. Recommended for adults.

Oct. 2: "The Shadow and Splendor of Austria, "
with Howard Meyers, Lucia Perrigo

Oct. 9: "Central Africa, " with Ron Shanin

Oct. 16: "Scotland Forever, " with Charles Forbes
Taylor

Oct. 23: "Yugoslavia and the Slavic Race, " with Oct. 30: "The Great Train Trip Across Siberia, " Nov. 6: "Wandering in Greece, " with Bill Madsen

Gene Wiancko

with William Stockdale

Nov. 13: "Caribbean Paradise, " with lohn Roberts Nov. 20: "Antarctica, " with Ted Walker

Nov. 27: "A Summer in Italy, " with Ted Bumiller 21

The Battle Against Dutch Elm Disease

By David M. Walsten

No plant disease has aroused more public
distress in the midwestern and northeast-
em states than Dutch elm disease, which was
first recognized on this side of the Atlantic barely
half a century ago. For those few manufacturers
who have used elm wood in certain products, the
loss of these trees has not posed a serious hard-
ship; but it has been of overriding concern to vil-
lage, town, and city dwellers, for whom the elm
(notably the American elm, Ultnus americanus)
has been an essential part of the landscape.

Invariably fatal unless therapeutic measures
are taken (even then the prognosis is poor),
Dutch elm disease is caused by a single species of
microscopic fungus, Ceratocystis ulmi, which
apparently kills the elm by blocking off fluid-
carrying vessels. By itself, the fungus would be
of little more than academic interest; but it is part-
nered by a beetle, which effectively transports
the fungus spores on its body hairs from dis-
eased trees to healthy ones. In Europe a number
of beetle species of the family Scolytidae (bark
beetles) are the disease vectors, or carriers —
notably the so-called smaller elm bark beetle.

Scolytus multistriatus. In North America two spe-
cies carry the fungus, S. multistriatus (known
here as the European elm bark beetle) and Hylur-
gopinus rufipes, commonly called the native elm
bark beetle.

Most elm species naHve to North America
and Europe (there are about 45 recognized spe-
cies worldwide) are highly susceptible to the dis-
ease. But curiously, about three-fourths of the 20
or so species indigenous to Asia show a marked
resistance. This characteristic of many Asian spe-
cies, it has been suggested, is because in this
region where the elm genus is thought to have
originated, there has been more time for resis-
tance to develop by means of natural selection.

As the disease has continued its spread in
the United States and Canada, the possibility of
the elm being wiped out in large areas has
seemed less and less fantastic. The prevailing
view of experts, however, is that we will win the
battle against the disease — eventually.

Several methods have been used, none with
much success to date, in combating it: quarantin-
ing infected wood, trenching between adjacent

GiUet Avenue,

W'aiikegan, JUinois,

vjo- e ana after Dutch

t'bn disease came to

::.;.;. The upper photo

(■«■; taken in 1962, the

:ozuer photo several

years later.

elms, i.e., those closer than 50 feet (thus severing
the interconnecting roots that can convey the
fungus from one tree to the next), the pruning of
diseased limbs and the destruction of dead or
dying elm wood (in which the fungus can con-
tinue to live as a saprophyte and where beetles
breed), the application of fungicides and insecti-
cides, the application of bacteria which kill the
fungus, the baiting and trapping of beetles, and
the development of resistant elm hybrids
through selective breeding.

The disease was formally described only as
recently as 1919, when it caught the attention of
a Dutch botanist — hence, the name. Two years
later another Dutch researcher identified C. ultni
as the pathogen. In 1934 a U.S. Department of
Agriculture worker confirmed the suspicions of
earlier investigators that the principal vector of
the disease was S. multistriatus.

Although the presence of this beetle in
North America was first established in 1904 (near
Boston), the disease it transmitted was not seen
in our elms until 1930, when it was identified in
Cleveland. This outbreak was short-lived. Soon
after, however, Dutch elm disease began to kill
off elms in the New York City area. It had come to
stay. By 1950 the disease had arrived in Illinois,
by 1952 had crossed the Mississippi (into Mis-
souri), and in 1973 it reached the Pacific coast
(Oregon). In 1981 Dutch elm disease remained
unreported in only seven of the lower 48 states:
Florida, Louisiana, New Mexico, Arizona,
Nevada, Utah, and Washington.

The North American Vectors

The native species of elm bark beetle occurs only
east of the Rockies, but the European beetle is
now found wherever American elms occur.
Although it was once believed that the north-
ward advance of S. multistriatus was limited by its
low tolerance of subzero temperatures in north-
ern latitudes, recent studies indicate that it has
quickly adapted to severe cold.'

S. multistriatus and H. rufipes differ mark-

David M. Walsten was formerly in a Dutch elm disease con-
trol program at the University of Wisconsin.

edly from one another in their habits: The adults
burrow tunnels, or galleries, along which they
lay their eggs at intervals, the European beetle
making its gallery along the grain of the wood,
the native beetle tunneling at a right angle to it.
Emerging from their eggs, the larvae of both spe-
cies create individual tunnels as they eat through
the wood, working away from the central brood
tunnel . At the far end of its individual tunnel, the
larva pupates. The adult that finally emerges
bores upward to the bark surface, then flies off,
traveling as much as several miles. Typically, the
American beetle attacks the elm's trunk and
lower limbs, while its European counterpart
attacks the upper crown. A healthy elm is
most apt to be attacked in late May, in June, or
early July.

S. multistriatus has two generations per year
in more northern latitudes; in the southern part
of its range a third generation is begun. The
native beetle usually has only one generation per
year and completes the winter in the tree as a
fully grown larva or as an adult. It flies off in late
summer to another tree to feed on limb bark,
then crawls to the trunk or a large limb, where it
overwinters in the outer bark.

Beginning in spring, adults of the European
beetle fly to trees that are already in a state of
decline, where they breed. Some females breed
for a second time in another tree. Fully grown lar-
vae overwinter in the bark, first emerging as
adults about mid-May.

The fungus is spread to a new tree by the
European beetle when it penetrates a twig crotch
to feed. It is believed that the native beetle trans-
mits the disease in spring when it moves from its
hibernation site in the outer bark to feed in the
branches or when it moves to the sapwood.

Recognizing an Infection

The first sign of Dutch elm disease is the wilting
of leaves, most often at the tips of branches, fol-
lowed by curling and progressive yellowing and
browning; or the leaves may dry up while still
green. (These conditions may have other causes
as well; diagnosis must be left to an expert.)
Investigators at Utah State University and the

The vectors, or carriers,
of Dutch elm disease.
Left: the smaller elm
bark beetle, or
European elm bark
beetle (Scolytus
multistriatus); right:
the native elm bark
beetle (Hylurgopinus
rufipes). The two
species are about the
same size: Vu to Vs
inch in length.
From "Dutch Elm
Disease," by G. A.
Strobel and G. N.
Lanier. Copyright
© 3981 by Scientific
American, Inc. All
rights reserved.

Early sprinv view of a

55-year-old hybrid elm

(Ulmus japonica x

U. wilsoniana) at

Morton Arboretum,

Lisle, Illinois. This

handsome hybrid is

one of a number being

tested for resistance to

Dutch elm disease by

George Ware and

associates at the

arboretum. Photo by

John Kohout, courtesy

Morton Arboretum.

Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station be-
lieve that a toxin produced by the fungus inter-
feres with the mechanics of fluid transmission in
the elm's vascular system: the leaves wilt and die
simply because they are not getting enough
water. In any case, an infected elm will succumb
to the disease if left untreated. But the percen-
tage of cures is low and these are confined to
trees in early stages of the disease. Diseased
limbs must be pruned and the wounds dressed.^
But pruning is no guarantee of survival, for the
fungus may already have spread within the
tree's system.

Fungicides

In the mid-1970s, a systematic fungicide {i.e.,
one that is injected into the tree) with
benzimadazole as its active ingredient, was
approved by the EPA and marketed for use
against Dutch elm disease. Some strains of
C. ulmi, however, have been shown to be resis-
tant to this fungicide. Arborists also reported
that the formulation did not truly kill the
fungus, but merely inhibited and isolated it

within the tree. Although this formulation
continues to be marketed by several manufac-
turers, some arborists have discontinued its
use. It has been shown to be of little or no use
in treating trees already infected with the dis-
ease, and some report that injections, which
must be done annually, are not only costly,
but the multiple injection holes can severely
weaken the tree and make it vulnerable to
secondary infection.

About five years ago another EPA-
approved formulation, with thiabendazole as
its active ingredient, was also marketed. Resis-
tance in C. ulmi has not been observed, but the
product is costly, and the multiple, annual
injections of this fungicide can also result in
secondary infections that may weaken or kill
the tree, report some arborists.

A recent wire service story reported that an
Iowa arborist had been successful in the treat-
ment of Dutch elm disease by using a prepara-
tion of mercuric chloride, long recognized as a
powerful fungicidal agent. The story failed to
mention, however, that mercuric chloride, high-
ly toxic to man and wildlife, is not approved by
the Environmental Protection Agency for such
application.

A Fungus-Killing Bacterium

Recent work at Montana State University offers
some hope that biological weaponry against the
fungus may be effective. Under Gary A. Strobel,
the Montana research team found a bacterium,
Pseudomonas syringae, that produces a substance
which inhibits the growth of the fungus. The bac-
terium and its antimycotic agent are not toxic to
elms, and the bacterium introduced into living
elm tissue has demonstrated its ability to survive
there. Experimentally, Strobel's team showed
that fungus-infected elms became infection-free
after inoculahon with P. syringae.

In a field experiment, "... 22 diseased trees
were treated with the bacteria and an equal
number of trees were left untreated as controls.
All the control trees but one either died or de-
clined drastically in . . . two growing seasons. In
the treated groups seven of the eight trees that
were lightly infected and were treated early in
the growing season survived with little or no sign
of decline over two . . . seasons. The other treated
trees that either were treated later in the season
or were more heavily infected died or declined."^

So far, so good. But Strobel points out that
several important questions remain to be an-
swered: Can the bacterium thrive and spread in
an elm population? Could P. syringae prove
pathogenic to certain plants? Can it pass human
and environmental safety standards? A major
chemical firm is field testing the bacterium, with

a view toward possibly marketing it. But even if
all goes well, it will be a considerable time before
P. syringae or its synthesized antimycotic are
available on the shelves of lawn and garden
supply stores.

Harold Hoover, assistant superintendent of
Forestry for the city of Elmhurst, Illinois, has also
been doing field tests with P. syringae, involving
himself particularly with problems of fluid
translocation in the elm. Conventionally, fluids
containing P. syringae (as well as systematic fun-
gicides and insecticides) are administered
through %6 inch holes drilled into the tree to a
depth of about V/i to 2 inches. By means of dye
tracers, however. Hoover found that the move-
ment of fluids radially from the column of tissue
receiving the inoculate is not sufficient in elms to
properly infuse peripheral tissues infected with
C. ulmi: in twigs and small branches and just
under the bark of the trunk and major limbs.

For better fluid distribution. Hoover intro-
duces his material through a cut made with a
circular saw that completely girdles the trunk,
penetrating to a depth of about two annual rings
and angling downward about 25°. As Hoover
continues to experiment and test his radical tech-
nique, he is also trying to reduce mortality that is
a common sequel to cutting the tree so severely.

Beetle-Inhibiting Fungus

A researcher at the University College of Wales,
J. Webber, has found that a fungus, Phomopsis
oblonga, which occurs naturally in elm bark, par-
ticularly in the wych elm (U. glabra), indigenous
to Britain, could be playing an important part in
limiting the disease in some parts of Britain,
where it first appeared in 1927.^ Tests with S. tnul-
tistriatus and S. scolytus showed that P. oblonga
reduces the number of beetle offspring as well as
the amount of potential breeding material. Both
factors, Webber believes, have some role in
reducing vector populations. But, he concludes,
how this reduction can influence the spread of
Dutch elm disease in Great Britain is still open
to speculation.

by virgin European beetles. In nature the action
of these substances results in the mass attraction
of elm bark beetles to a single target tree; hence,
the spectacularly contagious nature of the
disease.

Synthetically produced, these attractants
have been used effectively in the baiting and
trapping of the European elm bark beetle, but
practical problems in the application of the bait-
ing method may continue to be serious obstacles
where it is intended to reduce beetle popula-
tions. The method may have greater utility, in
the long term, for simply monitoring the pres-
ence of beetle populations. Some Chicago-area
agencies are currently using the baiting method
for this purpose.

Resistant Hybrids: The Ultimate Solution?

The most promising solution to the Dutch elm
problem yet advanced may lie in the develop-
ment of resistant hybrids, an area of inves-
tigation that is being pursued by a number of
horticulturists around the country, notably
George Ware, research group administrator at
Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois. Ware is partic-
ularly interested in the potential of the Japanese
elm, U. japonica, and the Siberian elm, U. pumila,
both of which show a high degree of resistance.
Ware is hopeful that crossing these with other
Asian species, particularly those showing high
stress tolerance for urban conditions, could result
in a fertile hybrid that combines all the desired
features, in addition to being resistant. Of all the
avenues toward an effective weapon in this bat-
tle, plant breeding is the slowest; but there are
those who believe it may be the ultimate answer.
Meanwhile, the best course of action for the
private property owner who wishes to safeguard
his elms from infestation or who suspects that his
trees already have the disease, is to consult a
local arborist. Chicago-area property owners
may contact the Cooperative Extension Service
(University of Illinois), in Rolling Meadows,
Illinois. n

Baiting and Trapping of Beetles

Perhaps the most sophisticated weapon now
being used against the disease is the trapping of
adult beetles with baits of chemical attractants.
Researchers at the State University of New York
College of Environmental Science and Forestry at
Syracuse, in cooperation with scientists at the
U.S. Forest Shade Tree Laboratory, in Delaware,
Ohio, isolated three beetle attractants. One of
these substances is produced by fungus-infested
or moribund bark; the other two are elaborated

'D.B. Roden: "The potential for selection for freeze-
tolerance in an Ontario population of Scolytus multi-
striatus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)," in Canadian Forestry
Service Research Notes (1981) 1 (3) 17-18. Published by
Great Lakes Forest Research Centre, Sault Ste. Marie,
Ont., Canada.

■V.R. Landwehr, et al: "Attraction of the native elm
bark beetle to American elm after the pruning of
branches, " in journal of Economic Entomology, (1981) Vol.
74, 577-580.

'"Dutch Elm Disease," by Gary A. Strobel and Gerald
N. Lanier, in Scientific American, August 1981, p. 66.
^Webber, J.: "A natural biological control of Dutch elm
disease," in Nature, UK (1981) 292 (5822) 449-451.

FIELD BRIEFS

Prince Philiy, the Duke of Edinburgh

Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh,
Chairs November 8 Symposium

Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, presi-
dent of World Wildlife Fund-International,
will chair a symposium on "Tropical
Forests: Vanishing Cradle of Diversity"
in James Simpson Theatre on Monday,
November 8, at 6:00 p.m.
Taking part in the symposium will be

iTie People and Art of the Philippines

ontitiues in Hall 26 through December 31.

2t ^^^'ito In/ Ron Testa, w-os

Dr. Lorin I. Nevling, Jr., director of Field
Museum; Dr. William Burger, chairman of
the Department of Botany; Dr. John W.
Fitzpatrick, associate curator and head.
Division of Birds; and Dr. Peter H. Raven,
director of the Missouri Botanical Garden
and professor of biology at Washington
Universitv, St. Louis.

Following the symposium. His Roval
Highness will be guest of honor at a black
tie reception and dinner in Stanlev Field
Hall. The reception begins at 7:00 p.m.
Hosting the event are Mr. and Mrs. T
Stanton Armour; Mr. and Mrs. Marshall
Field; Mr. and Mrs. Brooks McCormick;
Mr. and Mrs. James O'Connor; and Mr.
and Mrs. Jeffrey R. Short, Jr.

Tickets for the combined symposium
and dinner program are S250 per person,
with reser\'ations available on a first come,
first served basis. Checks should be made
payable to World Wildlife Fund-U.S. Pro-
ceeds will benefit World Wildlife Fund-
International, World Wildlife Fund-U.S.,
and the Botanical Program of Field
Museum of Natural Historv. Inquiries
about where to send payment and other
matters mav be made bv calling the
Women's Board Office, (312) 322-8870.

World Wildlife Fund is a private, inter-
national conservation organization dedi-
cated to preserving endangered wildlife
and habitats throughout the world and to
protecting the biological resources upon
which human well-being depends. Its
activities are scientifically based, aim to
produce immediate and long-term conser-
vation benefits, and provide models for
natural resource management techniques
and policies.

Field Museum is the final stop in a series
of 1982 visits to the United States bv Prince
Philip on behalf of the World Wildlife
Fund. Previous stops include Los Angeles
and Houston.

A Critical Time in Government Funding

A $30 million Chicago Park district match-
ing bond issue for capital improvements at
eight Chicago museums, including Field
Museum, located on Chicago park land
failed to win approval at the June session
of the Illinois State Legislature. As a re-
sult, the museums will have to wait until
the next legislative session for the bond
issue to be reconsidered.

Under the proposal. Field Museum
would have received $6,700,000 for build-
ing renovation, which sum would have
had to be matched dollar-for-dollar with
privately raised funds.

The Illinois General Assembly did ap-
prove state grants to museums on public

lands in Illinois totalling $1 million for
the fiscal year, which began July 1, 1982.
Although Governor Thompson had elimi-
nated all state support for museums in his
budget proposal, he signed the appro-
priation bill in July. Field Museum ex-
pects to receive about $174,000 from this
appropriation.

At the federal level. Congress rejected
President Reagan's proposal to rescind
$11.5 million for the Institute of Museum
Services in fiscal 1982. The President's
budget calls for elimination of all funds for
the Institute in fiscal 1983 and for substan-
tial cuts in appropriations for the National
Endowments for the Arts and Humani-
ties. Congress has not yet acted on these
recommendations.

"The country is experiencing difficult
economic times and museums expect to
share equitably in government cutbacks,"
commented Willard Bovd, president of
Field Museum. "However, museums have
been asked to take 100 percent cuts in
some state and federal programs. That is
more than their fair share.

"While less than 40 percent of Field Mu-
seum's operating expenditures come from
government funds — local, state, and
federal — the public funds provide unre-
stricted support to heat, light, maintain
and operate the Museum."

Ownership, Management and Circulation

Filing date: Sept. 15, 1982. Title: Field Museum of Natural
Hiitory Bulletin. Publication no. 898940. Frequency of
publication: Monthly except for combined July/August
issue. Number of issues published annually: U.
Annual subscription price: S6.00. Office: Roosevelt Rd.
at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, 111. 60605-2496.

Publisher: Field Museum of Natural Historv. Editor-
David M. Walsten. Known bondholders, mortgages,
and other security holders: none. Nonprofit status has
not changed during the preceding 12 months.

Av. no.

Actual no.

copies

each issue

single issue

preceding

nearest to

Umos.

filing date

Total copies printed . . .

. . 39,044 . . .

35,200

Paid Circulation (sales

through dealers.

vendors, carriers) . . .

. . None . . .

None

Paid circulation (mail

subscriptions)

. . 35,823 . . .

32,243

Total paid circulation . .

. . 35,823 . . .

32,243

Free distribution

670 .. .

670

Total distribution ....

. . 36,493 . . .

32,913

Office use, left over . . .

. . 2,551 . . .

2,287

Total

. . 39,044 . . .

35,200

I certify that the statements made by me above are cor-
rect and complete. Andrea G. Bonnette. vice president
for Finance and Museum Services.

October and November at Field Museum

October 16 throu^ November 15

Continuing Exhibits

"The People and Art of the Philippines." Through
December 31. A stunning exhibit containing some
of the finest examples of Philippine art from prehis-
toric times to the present. The 420 objects have
been gathered from 29 private sources and muse-
ums, including the Field's fine collection. Special
emphasis is given to the prehistoric ceramics and
gold, church art from the Spanish colonial period,
wood sculpture from the northern tribal peoples
and exquisite woven, beaded, and embroidered
textiles from southern Philippine peoples. Hall 26,
second floor.

"Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest
Coast." Field Museum's landmark permanent exhibit
compares and contrasts the way Eskimos and North-
west Coast Indians have adapted to widely differing
environments along the continuous northern Pacific
and Arctic coastlines. The two groups have flour-
ished since prehistoric times by harvesting the riches
of the oceans. The five sections of the exhibit use
displays, films, and full-sized replicas to depict the
origins, food-gathering techniques, social life, spir-
itual beliefs, and art of these peoples. Here is an
exhibit so big you'll want to return to it often for
new insights into how these unique cultures existed
in harmony with their surroundings. Hall 10,
first floor.

"Man in His Environment." The information con-
tained in this multimedia exhibit reinforces the
thrust of many of Field Museum's October programs,
especially "Extinction," the October 17 lecture by
Dr. Paul Ehrlich. It uses films and displays to
describe the ecological relationship of plants and
animals to their surroundings and defines man's
effect on this delicate balance. Learn how man is
consuming the irreplaceable resources of the earth,
poisoning the air, land, and waters and disrupting
nature's equilibrium. Discover some of the alterna-
tives to our current destructive wavs and ponder
whether we are willing to make the adjustments
necessar\' to reverse the process. Hall 18, first floor.

"The Last and the First Eskimos." Opened October 9.
This photographic study is the joint effort of pho-
tographer Alex Harris and child psychiatrist
Dr. Robert Coles. It documents the white man's

influence during a transitional period in the history
of Alaskan Eskimos. Through January 23, 1983.
Special exhibit area in front of Hall 9, first floor.

New Programs

"Extinction," Ray A. Kroc Environmental Lecture
by Dr. Paul Ehrlich. To Dr. Ehrlich, internationallv
known author, scientist, and Stanford Universit}'
professor, the fate of the human species depends on
maintaining the planet's current diversity and abun-
dance of life. He feels that without the free "public
services" this viable ecosystem provides, such as
water purification, soil creation, waste disposal,
and pest control, there could be no ci\'ilization and
perhaps no human life. Yet mankind is destroying
the very system that our welfare depends upon. We
are forcing extinction of species at a rate which
greatly exceeds the rate of any natural processes to
replace them. Hear Dr. Ehrlich's thoughtful argu-
ments and his positive proposals to reverse the tide
toward species extinction. Don't miss this important
lecture! Sunday, October 17 at 2 p.m. in James Simp-
son Theatre. Members: $3; nonmembers: $5.

The Paul Winter Consort. Celebrate ethnic traditions
in harmony with the natural world through the
free-spirited music of this inventive group. Their
music unites the styles of jazz, svTnphony, Latin
American, and African music with natural sounds
of wolves, whales, wind, and water. A livelv evening
designed to reawaken the natural resources of har-
mony and rhvthm within us all! Order vour tickets
early for this special event. Tickets will be sold at
the door on a space available basis only. Friday,
October 22 at 8 p.m. in James Simpson Theatre.
Members: $8; nonmembers; $10.

Parent/Child Workshops. Registration opens October
1 for this fall's sessions. Parent-child teams can
work on a craft project or join a participator}' event.
Topics include paper-making, bookbinding, Inca
techniques for pottery making and dinosaur mural
painting. Sessions keved to child's age. Detailed
brochure will be mailed to Members or available
from Education Department. Workshops will be
held November 6, 14, and 20.

Continued on back cover

October and November at Field Museum

Continued frotn inside back cover

"The Last /\nd First Eskimos" An illustrated lecture
by photographer Alex Harris in conjunction with
the exliibit of his work nov\' on display at Field
Museum. Harris describes liis life and work among the
Eskimos, recording their culture at a critical point
in its histon'. November 14 at 2 p.m. Members: $3;
nonmembers $5. Enter through the West Entrance.

Continuing Programs

"Edward E. Ayer Film Lecture Series. Travel around
the world via film ever\' Saturday afternoon in
October and November. Narrated by the filmmakers
themselves, these free 90-minute film/lectures are
recommended for adults. The films begin at
1:30 p.m. in James Simpson Theatre. Admission is
through the West Entrance. Members receive priori t\'
seating. Oct. 16, "Scotland"; Oct. 23, "Japan"; Oct.
30, "Great Train Trip Across Siberia"; Nov. 6,
"Greece"; Nov. 13, "Mexico."

Fall Journey. "Autumn Walkabout" is a self-guided
tour of Field Museum exhibits and dioramas that
mirror what you can see outside in Chicago during
the fall season. Free Jour/iey pamphlets available at
Museum entrances.

Weekend Evt;nts Line. A prerecorded telephone mes-
sage gives up-to-date information about such week-
end e\'ents as Discoverv' Programs, Family Features,
films, and special programs. Call (312) 322-8854
weekends.

WEi'Ki.Nn Dis(:o\'ery Progr^vms. New vistas of natural
history are opened through these tours, films, slide
programs, and participatory acti\ities. Octobers

programs entitled "Cetaceans, Pinnepeds, and Sirens
of the Sea," are planned around sea mammals. His-
tory and legend once depicted them as mermaids
or monsters of the deep, but recent scientific re-
search into the social lives and communication
systems of whales, dolphins, seals, and otters have
shown them to be complex, highly intelligent crea-
tures. Oct. 16: 2 p.m., "The Orca Whale"; 3 p.m.
"Greenpeace — Voyages to Save the Whales," discus-
sion session led by Greenpeace Director Diane Mac-
Quillan to follow; Oct. 23: 2 p.m., "Whales, Dolphins
and Men"; 3 p.m., "Whales: Mystery and Magnifi-
cence in the Deep"; Oct. 30, 2 p.m., "Jojoba"; 2:30
p.m., "The Great Whales." Two Egvptian tours have
been scheduled in No\'ember. Thev are: Nov. 6, 11:30
a.m., "Ancient EgNpt; and Nov. 7, 12 noon, "Prepa-
ration for After Life in Ancient Egypt."

Family Feature. "Tagging Whales." In conjunction
with October s Discovery Programs, "Cetaceans,
Pinnepeds, and Sirens of the Sea," this Family Feature
is designed to familiarize young \dsitors with the
whale family (cetaceans). Children can net a paper
whale in a make-believe ocean, identify their catch,
and take home a properly "tagged" whale. Saturda\'
and Sunday, October 16 and 17, from 12 noon to
2 p.m. in Hall 19.

Museum Hours. The Museum is open daily from
9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Free day is Thursday.

The Museum Library is open weekdays from 9 a.m.
to 4 p.m. Obtain a pass at the reception desk,
first floor.

Museum Phone: (312) 922-9410

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin

November 1982

Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History

Founded 1893

CONTENTS

November 1982
Volume 53, Number 10

Field Briefs

President: Willard L. Boyd
Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.

Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Kathryn Hargrave
Calendar: Mary Cassai
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

"Ziggy" Finds NeH' Home at Field Museum

bv Michael Reed and Jean Sellar
preparators, Division of Mammals

Elephants and Tiixidermy

Field Museum Tburs

The Last and First Eskimos

Exhibit in Hall 9 through Januarv' 23

Board of Trustees

James J. O'Connor

chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Bowen Blair
Willard L. Boyd
Stanton R. Cook
O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Marshall Field
Richard M. Jones
Hugo J. Melvoin
Charles F. Murphy, Jr.
Lorin I. Nevling, Jr.
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
William L. Searle
Edward Byron Smith
Robert H. Strotz
John W. Sullivan
William G. Swartchild, Jr.
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Julian B. Wilkins
Blaine J. Yarrington

Life Trustees

Harry O. Bercher
Joseph N. Field
Clifford C. Gregg
Samuel Insull, Jr.
William V. Kahler
William H. Mitchell
John M. Simpson
J. Howard Wood

Native American Tburist Crafts

A 19th Centun' Example from Alaska

bvjames W. VanStone 12

curator of North American archaeology and ethnology

Hunters in a Changing World

bvjean Treloggen Peterson

Our Environment

November and December at Field Museum

Calendar of Coming E\'ents 26

COVER

''Zigg\% " Brookfield Zoo 's famed elephan t in 1973. The bones
of this exceptionalh' large Indian elephant now reside in the
Field Museum collection. Zigg\' died in 1975. For more on
Ziggy, seepage 4. Photo courtesy Chicago Zoological Society.

Field Museum of Slalural Histon, Bulletm (USPS 898-940) is pubiistied monthly, except combined
liilv August issue, bv Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road al Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, II. 60605 SubsiTiptions: $600 annually, $3'00 for schools. Museum membership
includes Bulletin sut>scription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarilv reflect the policv of Field Museum Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome Museum
phone: 012) 922-9410 Postmaster: Please send from .1579 to Field Museum of Natural History.
Roosevelt Road al Lake Shore Drive. Chicago, II 60605. ISSN:0O15-O703 Second class postage
paid at Chicago, n.

FIELD BRIEFS

James W. Valentine 84553

Jin Yu-gan 84552

Peter W. Galton 84550

Visiting Scientist Program

Field Museum's Visiting Scientist Pro-
gram, initiated in 1979, continues to attract
geologists and paleontologists from the
United States and abroad. Under the pro-
gram, scientists are given space and facili-
ties for research at the Museum, the
opportunity to work with the Museum's
collections, and to collaborate with the
Field Museum's own staff.

Recent visiting scientists under the
program included Jin Yu-gan, associate
researcher at the Nanjing Institute of
Geology and Paleontology, Academia
Sinica, of the People's Republic of China;
James W. Valentine of the Department of
Geological Sciences, University of Califor-
nia, Santa Barbara; and Peter W. Galton,
of the University of Bridgeport, Bridge-
port, Conn. Mr. Jin and Dr. Valentine are
invertebrate paleontologists; Dr. Galton is
a vertebrate paleontologist who was here
to study Field Museum's type specimen of
Brachiosaurus altithorax, one of the largest
dinosaur species known.

Peter R. Crane Joins Staff

Paleobotanist Peter R. Crane joined the
Department of Geology staff in September
as assistant curator. He received his
undergraduate degree and doctorate at
the University of Reading, England, and
served with Reading's Department of

Botany from 1978 to 1981. During the past
year Crane has been a visiting research
scholar at Indiana University, working on
some of the earliest known fossil flowers.
His research has centered on the fos-
sil history and evolution of flowering
plants, but his interests cover all aspects of
paleobotany and their relevance to under-
standing plant evolution.

A Founders' Find

On September 30, housekeeper Tony
Valentino was watering plants in the
Founders Room. To his amazement, a
one-inch adult land snail with greenish-

yellow shell and brown body crawled
from the base of a tree.

Alan Solem, curator of invertebrates,
identified the snail as Zachrysia (Chrysias)
provisoria (Pfeiffer, 1858). There is no com-
mon name for this species that originally
lived in Cuba. Whether it was native to
Nassau, Bahamas, or introduced there is
uncertain, but by 1956 it had been acciden-
tally introduced into south Florida. Today
it has a moderately wide distribution in
Florida and occasionally travels north on
ornamental plants and thus unexpectedly
adds to the decor in greenhouses, homes,
and even Founders' Room at Field
Museum.

Nicknamed "Zach," it now resides in
the Division of Invertebrates.

"Zach," surprise visitor in Founders Room 93432

'Ziggy" Finds New Home
at Field Museum

by Michael Reed and Jean Sellar
preparators, Dmsion of Mammals

fore from tribes as disparate as the Bongos
of Sudan and the Kurrabas of Sri Lanka has it that
elephants die in secret graveyards scouted by
warder elephants who protect the bones from
desecration. Persistent ivory hunters have failed
to discover any such graveyards, although the
paucity of observations of elephants dead from
natural causes has led to speculation that the car-
casses are gathered in one place. Possibly ele-
phants often die in or near water and their dense
bones quickly sink into mud. Certainly the de-
composition and dissolution of even so large an
animal occurs very quickly in tropical areas.

Michael Reed and

Ziggy's skull before

4 processing

But there is a deposition of elephant bones
much closer. Right here at the Museum in the
Division of Mammals there are bones from nu-
merous elephants. And the collecHon has just
received one of its most impressive members to
date, Ziggy.

Ziggy was notorious both for his size and
for being a "rogue male." Of the two, his repu-
tation for size was far better deserved. Asian
elephants (Elephas maximus) like Ziggy seldom
exceed 11,000 lbs.; however, Ziggy weighed in
at approximately 13,000 lbs. African elephants
(Loxodonta afrkana), the larger of the modern-day
species of elephants, rarely reach Ziggy's size,
although some field estimates of wild bulls have
gone much higher.*

Legend has it that Ziggy killed two men
before he came to Brookfield Zoo, one in Europe
and one in San Diego. However, there is no evi-
dence of any kind that Ziggy ever caused human
deaths. In 1941 Ziggy did charge, pin, and start
to crush his keeper, the skilled elephant trainer,
George "Slim" Lewis. It is probable that the near-
ly fatal attack failed only because Ziggy's lengthy
tusks got in the way. At the time of the attack,
Ziggy was in a poorly understood condition
called musth, which is linked with irritable and
aggressive behavior in male Asian elephants.

Ziggy was brought to the U.S. in 1920, when
about two years old. Florenz Ziegfeld, the show-
man, was at the New York dock when the young
elephant, then called "Herman," was being un-
loaded. Impetuously, he bought him as a present
for his daughter, but a string of mishaps con-
vinced Ziegfeld that even juvenile elephants do
not make suitable pets. Ringling Bros. Circus
bought the elephant, then sold him to Singer's
Midgets Circus, who named the elephant after
his earlier owner.

The circus traveled with the renamed Ziggy

*An African elephant in the collection of the Smithson-
ian Institution is estimated to have weighed 20,000 lbs.

dancing "the lurch" and playing the harmonica
all over the U.S. and Europe. Male Asian ele-
phants become sexually mature at 14 to 15 years
of age; when Ziggy was a little older than this he
began to be willful and uncooperative. As a re-
sult, Ziggy was sold to Brookfield Zoo in 1936,
where he stayed until his death in 1975.

After the attack on his keeper, Ziggy had to
be confined indoors. A major fund-raising cam-
paign by the zoo, with notable contributions
from schoolchildren, allowed the construction
of a large, safe indoor-outdoor enclosure. Ziggy

Bones in the Division
of Mammals collection:
(from left) femurs of
Ziggy fElephas maxi-
musj, giraffe (Giraffa
cameiopardalis),
black rhinoceros (Dice-
ros bicornisj, greater
kudu (Tragelaphus
strepsiceros), and
Dall sheep (Ovis
dalli). Group of
smaller bones belong
to hyrax (Procavia
capensisj. 93431

had a popular "coming-out" party in 1971 when
the work was completed. He made the news
again four years later when an exploratory
attempt to help his keeper open the shift door
resulted in Ziggy falling into his 10-foot-deep
moat. Winches were necessary to haul him up-
right, and 100,000 lbs. of limestone were brought
in to form a ramp for him to walk out. He refused
to do so, even when bribed with his missed daily
400-lb. meal. Finally, the old bull responded to
the presence of a young female and walked up
to his enclosure 30 hours after he had fallen.

Several attempts were made to mate Ziggy,
but no offspring resulted. Attempts to breed cap-
tive elephants are seldom successful, which is
unfortunate, since both the population and
range of the two elephant species has declined.

Above: (from left) curator Bruce Patterson, preparator Mi-
chael Reed, and collection manager Robert Izor lower Ziggy' s
skull into 224-gallon steel kettle. Below: Michael Reed re-
moves soft tissues from around bones of skull.

Whenever a new specimen is to be added
to the Mammal collection, a determination must
be made as to the best preparation method for
long-term storage. The use of dermestid beetles
is preferred for processing skeletal materials be-
cause their tiny mouthparts can remove flesh
from skeletons without damaging or disarticu-
lating the specimen.** However, maintenance
of a beetle colony big enough to process animals
larger than deer is difficult.

The escape-proof cages containing the
beetles take up too much room, and it can be
difficult even for the Field Museum to provide
enough food in the form of animal carcasses to
keep so large a colony going over a period of
time. Fats and oils are not completely removed
from large specimens by beetles, and the speci-
mens dry out and become unappetizing before
the beetles can finish them. The most important
maintenance consideration is that the large size
of the beetle population in such a container
makes it impossible to exercise the precise con-
trols necessary to protect small delicate mam-
mals from damage during processing. Therefore,
we prefer to use several medium-size beetle
colonies in 20-to-30 gallon tanks instead of one
large 100-gallon colony.

There are a great many other methods of
cleaning specimens to choose from: maceration,
dissolving tissues with acids or alkalis, boiling
in water or ammonia, or digesting with enzymes.
The method we chose for Ziggy was cooking at
160°F with laundry enzymes and detergent.

Our large mammal preparation equipment,
located on the third floor in the Ellen Thome
Smith Bird and Mammal Study Center, consists
of two gas burners, a variety of 3-to-lO gallon
pots, and two steam-jacketed stainless steel ket-
tles, one with a 60-gallon capacity, the other with
a 224-gallon capacity. The size and condition of
the specimen determines which is to be used.
The gas burners and pots are used for dog- to
sheep-size animals or parts of larger animals that
require special attention, such as joints that must
remain articulated. The two steam-jacketed ket-
tles are used for sheep- to elephant-size animals.
Ziggy's skeleton was prepared using this latter
equipment.

As with all cooking, there is more to this
process than merely heating pots of water. Holes

**See "Dermestids," by Robert M. Timm, February,
1982 Bulletin.

are first drilled in the long leg bones to aid mar-
row removal. If more than one animal is to be
processed in the same kettle at one time, each
animal (or its parts) is individually placed in a
nylon mesh bag. Degreasing and softening of
hssue is accelerated by the use of household
laundry detergent; both an enzyme and non-
phosphate detergent are used. The specimens
are cooked until the tissue covering the bones
reaches a gelatinous consistency. It may take as
little as several hours or as long as several days
to obtain the desired results. The water is
changed between each step and the specimens
are rinsed thoroughly to remove detergent resi-
due. We then use a soft wire brush, scissors, or
cartilage knife to remove any remaining tissue
or detergent residue.

The clean bones are spread out to dry. The
long leg bones are especially susceptible to crack-
ing at this stage. Covering these bones with blot-
ting paper slows the drying process and prevents
drastic cracking. Although the bones of an ele-
phant like Ziggy are many times larger than the
bones of most animals we deal with, they are pre-
pared in the way just outlined. The only differ-
ence is that far more time is needed to process
elephant bones.

The stresses put on individual bones by
changes in water temperature, laundry deter-
gent, and the drying process are major draw-
backs to this method. We brush on and inject into
crevices a dilute solution of a plastic-like mate-
rial (glyptal) to harden weak spots and prevent
cracking of teeth. The specimen is now ready to
be cataloged and numbered. Large specimens,
like Ziggy, are installed directly into the storage
cases of the research collection; whenever pos-
sible, specimens are boxed and labeled before
installation.

Our work in the Zoology preparation lab is
not for taxidermic purposes. The majority of ex-
hibits are permanent, so preparation efforts have
shifted towards scientific applications. Individ-
ual bones are more readily handled and meas-
ured when not wired together, as in a mounted
skeleton. However, we do receive a number of
inquiries every year from people interested in
preparation of skeletal material. They need only
follow the basic procedures outlined above. An
excellent source of additional information is
Anatomical Preparations, by Milton Hildebrand
(University of California Press, 1968).

This story has not ended the saga of Ziggy,
for his final resting place is in a research collec-
tion of worldwide coverage and importance. The
research collection is utilized through loans
made to and visits from qualified scientists from
this country and around the world. We welcome
Ziggy as a valuable addition to our collection. D

Above; Jean Sellar
(left), Michael Reed
and Bruce Patterson
with one of Ziggy' s
tusks. Left: The
cleaned skull is ready
to be stored in the
research collection.
Pelvic bones are
in kettle.

Elephants and Taxidermy

A brief span of time — perhaps fifteen years at
most^separate the Dumbolike representation of
Indian elephants above and the stunning lifelike
African elephants at the right. The Indian elephants
and their cousin, the mammoth, upper right, were
on view in the 1890s at Field Museum's first quar-
ters— the building which had served as the Palace
of Fine Arts, in Jackson Park, during the World's
Columbian Exposition. (At its founding in 1893
the museum was named "The Columbian Museum
of Chicago"; the following year the name was
changed to "Field Columbian Museum." Shortly
before the death of founder Marshall Field in 1906,
the name was again changed to "Field Museum of
Natural History.")

The pair of African elephants at right were ac-
quired by then chief taxidermist Carl Akeley during
a 14-month expedition to Africa in 1905-06. They
may still be seen, of course, m Stanley Field Hall,
every bit as impressive and lifelike as when mounted
more than 70 years ago. The Indian elephants and
the mammoth were disposed of before the museum
moved to its present huildin'^ in Grant Park in
1921.

'•^tCa. __

TOURS FOR MEMBERS

Feluccas on Nile

Egypt Tour with Nile Cruise

Januarys 7-26
Our Egypt tour offers a rare opportunity for in-depth
visits to the treasures along the Nile under the leader-
ship of Mrs. Del Nord, doctoral candidate in Egyptology
at the University of Chicago.

The itinerary will include Cairo, Memphis, Sak-
kara, Aswan/Abu Simbel, Edfu, Esna, Luxor, Thebes,
the Vallev of the Kings and Queens, Dendereh, Abydos,
Amarna, Middle Kingdom tombs at Beni Hasan, the
pwamid at Medum, and much more. The tour also
includes an 11-dav Nile crviise on a chartered, modern
Nile steamer, The Sphinx. The tour price is $4,200 per
person based upon double occupancy. This includes
all air transportation, meals, Nile cruise, hotels, tips,
taxes, transfers, visa fees, admissions, baggage han-
dling, escorts, and more.

Since advance bookings have already been made
for this popular tour (limited to 30), only a few accom-
modations remain; early encjuiries, therefore, are
suggested. Reservations will be honored in the
order received.

New Providence and Andros Islands
Ecology Tbur

Februan^ 24-March 5, 1983

If you think "it's better in the Bahamas," but are looking
for more than just a perfect beach, our 10-day study
tour to the Bahamas' New Providence and Andros
Islands will offer that extra dimension for you.

Departure from Chicago's O'Hare Airport is sched-
uled for Thursdav, Februan' 24, for Nassau, on New
Providence Island. While in Nassau the cit\' tour will
include Blackbeard's Tower, old village of Fox Hill, the
farming area, L\'ford Cay, and other points of interest.

There will be an opportunity for you to meet Bahamian
government dignitaries and other notable experts.

On Monday, February 28, we'll fly (12-minute
flight) from Nassau to the tranquility of Andros Island.
One of the special features of this trip is the unique
opportunity to spend six days on this out island at a
comfortable lodge (not open to the public) with private
cottages right on the ocean's edge. Air conditioning is
provided by the fresh breezes from the sea. The beach
begins at the cabin door. Our meals in the dining room
of the main lodge will be delicious and plentiful, with
many Bahamian specialties.

The magnificent Andros Barrier Reef is one mile
offshore, about a ten-minute boat ride, and the marine
life on the reef is fantastic. We will be able to studv the
reef from boats especially constructed for this purpose.
If you prefer to snorkel, there will be equipment for
your use.

There will be nature walks on both islands, with
emphasis on plant and animal life. We'll visit a de-
lightful village where the natives will be involved in
the local industry' of hand printing fine cloth, and
we'll explore an experimental farm in operation.

Margaret Rabley, a dedicated environmentalist,
will be our guest lecturer. Mrs. Rabley lived for the
past ten vears in the Bahamas, where she was science
coordinator and lecturer at the College of the Bahamas.
She has written several books on the wild flowers of
the Bahamas and Caribbean, and her research work
covered manv aspects of Bahamian plant and
animal life.

This tour will be modestly priced, and fills up
rapidlv. The miLximum number of participants is 25.
We hope you will make your reservation early Please
telephone (our direct telephone number is
312-322-8862) or write to Field Museum Tours.

Nassciii In-wav

The Last and First Eskimos: Photos by Alex Harris

On view in Hall 9 through January 23

First Communion day, TUnunak, May 1978

Alex Harris and Dr. Robert Coles went to Alaska for the
first time in 1973, to conduct research for a new volume
of the series "Children of Crises." Their study of children
soon became a study of \allage life. Since that first trip
they have returned to Alaska many times - sometimes
together, more often separately - but alwavs remaining
in touch and sharing their experiences. Manv of the
Harris photographs, together wdth an extensive text bv
Coles, were published as The Last and First Eskimos bv
New York Graphic Society' in 1978.

Harris set out to photograph several remote rural
\illages where Eskimo traditions still persist. Cultural
10 and environmental changes are occurring so fast in

Alaska that many of the photographs have already
acquired an historical perspective. By 1981, for instance,
most of the residents of Shungnak had moved to new^
go\'ernment housing, about a mile from the \illage
Harris photographed.

In the areas Harris photographed, a subsistence
wav of life exists side-b\'-side with the cash-job economy,
and both offer \iable options. These are \'illages where
a grandfather cannot speak with his grandchildren
because thev speak different languages. It is this com-
ple.vitA' - and the dignih' of the people which has some-
how remained intact - that Harris saw and set out to
record and, in fact capture so well. □

Eskimo dancing, Tlmunak, April 1976

Native American Tourist Crafts

A 19th Century Example from Alaska

bv James W. VanStone
Curator of North American Archaeology' and Ethnology

We usually associate native American
crafts made specifically for the tourist
trade with curio stores in Wisconsin Dells or
roadside stands near the pueblos in New Mexico.
It should be kept in mind, however, that the
term "tourist" can be applied not only to those
who visit exotic areas and cultures today, but
also to those who traveled in frontier regions at
a relatively early date. The fact that such indi-
viduals were usually in these remote regions for
business rather than pleasure is not necessarily
relevant. A tourist can be defined as anyone
whose interest is stimulated by environments
and ways of life different from his own, and who
desires to acquire souvenirs of his experiences.

In Alaska such early tourists included gold
miners, commercial whalers, and members of
exploring and scientific expeditions who, begin-
ning in the 1850s, came to the territory in ever-in-
creasing numbers. At first these visitors pur-
chased, as mementoes of their experience, items
of material culture made by Eskimos and Indians
for their own use. As the demand increased,
however, the native peoples of Alaska went to
work to produce items specifically for trade.
Examples of this type of "market art" made by
19th-century Eskimos include the engraved ivory
pipes, ivory carvings, and elaborate skin bags
that can be seen in the new exhibit, "Maritime
Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast, " in
Hall 10.

One of the most unusual examples of 19th-
century Eskimo market art in the Field Museum
collection — an item of craftsmanship that tells us
a good deal about native life — is a model of a
qasgiq, or ceremonial house. The model is part
of a collection of ethnographic material made by
Marcus O. Cherry along the lower Yukon River
for the World's Columbian Exposition. From
July, 1889 until the summer of 1892 Cherry was an
employee of the Episcopal mission at the Ingalik
Indian village of Anvik, on the lower-middle
Yukon River. He traveled extensively and his

collection, mostly Eskimo material, was exhibited
in the Anthropological Building at the Exposition
and afterwards transferred to the newly estab-
lished Field Columbian Museum (later to be
named Field Museum of Natural History), which
accessioned it on October 31, 1893.

A qasgiq was the most conspicuous structure
in'any Eskimo village in western Alaska.
Although similar in construction to family dwell-
ings, it was much larger and usually located on
the highest plot of ground or in the center of a
community; larger communities had more than
one. A qasgiq was generally square, as much as
25 feet (7.6m) on a side, and had a single raised
bench around the walls.

A qasgiq had many functions, but most
importantly it was the central place in the lives
of men. In addition to being their eating and
sleeping place, it also served as a workshop
where tools and hunting and fishing equipment
were made. A boy went to the qasgiq to live
when he was about five years old and it was
there that he learned the techniques and lore of
his culture by watching the craftsmen at work
and listening to stories of great events of the
past told with enthusiasm by the oldest men.

Among the most enjoyable activities occur-
ring in the qasgiq were sweat baths taken by the
men and boys at frequent intervals during the
winter. Edward William Nelson, a collector of
ethnographic material in Alaska for the Smith-
sonian Inshtution in the early 1880s, has
described these baths in graphic detail:

Every man has a small urine tub near his place, where
this liquid is saved for bathing. A portion of the floor in
the center of the room is made of planks so arranged
that they can be taken up, exposing a pit beneath, in
which a fire of drift logs is built. When the smoke has
passed off and the wood is reduced to a bed of coals, a
cover is put over the smoke hole in the roof and the men
sit naked about the room until they are in profuse per-
spiration; then they bathe in the urine, which com-
bines with the oil on their bodies, and thus takes the

place of soap, after which they go outside and pour

water over their bodies until they become cool

[Because of the intense heat] the bathers are obliged to
use respirators [made of grass] to protect their lungs. '

Although the cjosgiq was normally the domain
of men and boys, on special occasions it served
as a general meeting place. Many of the impor-
tant ceremonies were also held in the qasgiq,
including dances and feasts which honored the
dead and propitiated the spirits of game animals.
Most of the time women were permitted in the
qasgiq only when they brought food for the men,
but on some occasions the whole community
was present.

Nelson has described and illustrated a typi-
cal qasgiq found in villages from Norton Sound
south to the Kuskokwim River (fig. 3). Its main
room had a plank floor, benches for sitting and
sleeping, and lamp stands where pottery lamps
burning seal oil helped to alleviate the gloom in
this semisubterranean structure. The walls,
made of horizontal logs or vertical planks, were
seven or eight feet high and the roof was cribbed
with a central skylight and smoke hole.

In summer the qasgiq was entered through
a passage at ground level, but in winter the
inside door was sealed and the occupants
entered through an underground passage
emerging through a hole in the plank floor near
the fireplace. It was this part of the plank floor
that could be removed when a fire was built for
the sweat baths.

Point Hope

'^°"'"'-"»»

BERING SEA

ALASKA

In winter too, the entrance tunnel served as
a cold trap, helping to keep the interior of the
qasgiq warm. Like family dwellings, the wooden
structure of the qasgiq was covered with earth
and a layer of sod. Even without a fire it
remained warm in winter and the residents
were frequently stripped to the waist or com-
pletely naked. On the side and back platforms
each man had his own place. Elderly men of
high status and important visitors from other
villages occupied choice places in the back

corners while younger men were obliged to
content themselves with places closer to the
drafty entrance.

The model ijasgic] collected by Marcus Cherry
for the World's Columbian Exposition lacks a
specific provenience, although we know that it
represents the type of structure described by
Nelson and characteristic of communities on the
lower Yukon River and vicinity. On this speci-
men someone has written "St. Michael" in pen-
cil, so it is possible that the model was collected
in that coastal village north of the mouth of the
Yukon.

sides, pegged in place and also lashed to the
sides, which represent the benches. On these
benches are crude wooden figures representing
persons taking part in a ceremony, five along
the back and on one side, six (two of which are
missing) on the other, and four along the front
(figs. 2,4). Worked to a pointed peg at the base,
which extends through a hole in the bench,
these figures lack arms and legs and the features
are crudely indicated. In the center of the back
bench, facing the entrance, is a single figure
raised above and in front of the others on a thin
stick; the figure holds a long stick pointed for-

Window

and

Smoke hole

fireplace

o 5 5 5 ST

Summer Passageway

Winter Passageway

The front and two sides of this model, which
is approximately 35 cm square and about 40 cm
high in the center (about 14 by 16 inches), are
constructed of single pieces of wood, slightly
curved by steaming, and lashed together at the
corners with spruce root (fig. 1). The back con-
sists of two overlapping pieces lashed with root,
while the bottom is a single piece lashed at
intervals to the sides. Around the upper edges
of the sides are four shaped strips of wood,
forming a rim which is held in place with wooden
pegs. In the center of the front piece near the
bottom edge is a square opening, which repre-
sents the entrance from the summer passageway
into the main room of the qasgiq.

The cover of the model is a stylized repre-
sentation of the structure's roof. The cribbing is
in the four corners so that no center posts are
required. This cover consists of four triangular
pieces lashed together with root near the top
and bottom. At the top is a square opening to
admit light and release smoke. It is covered
with a small piece of seal intestine held in place
by a framework of four narrow strips of wood
pegged in place. The roof-cover is hinged to the
main body of the structure along one side with
three strips of sealskin. On the opposite side is
a broken loop handle of the same material.

In the interior of the model there are strips
of wood approximately 6cm wide along all four

ward toward the entrance. A similar figure on
the left bench (barely visible in figure 2) lacks
the horizontal stick. Unlike the other figures on
the benches, these two have legs. They also
have small wooden pegs on each side of the
head, possibly representing antlers.

Below the benches, on the floor of the qasgiq,
is a square framework of narrow strips of wood,
pegged to the bottom piece, which originally
held six figures. Three of these are along the

entrance

back (partially visible in figure 2), a fourth is
missing, and there is one on each side. The
entrance is flanked by a figure on each side; the
bases of these two figures, which face the back
bench, form long pegs inserted directly into the
floor of the qasgiq (fig. 4). In the brief notes which
accompany the Cherry collection, these two
figures are identified as shamans, the traditional
Eskimo religious practitioners who served as
intermediaries between ordinary people and
the spirit world.

Although it is impossible to say with cer-
tainty which ceremony is being celebrated in
this model qasgiq, Nelson tells us that the pres-
ence of long wooden rods is associated with the
Great Feast of the Dead, a common festival in
one form or another all along the coast of western
and northwestern Alaska. In this ceremony the
nearest blood relative of a deceased individual
honored his spirit with presents of food, drink,
and clothing. This was accomplished with the
assistance of the dead man's namesake at the
first Festival of the Dead following the former's
death. At this time only small offerings of food
were presented, but all effort was directed
toward the Great Feast of the Dead.

After the passing of one or two years, the
chief mourner began to accumulate valuable
articles such as furs of various kinds, clothing,
and food. He or she frequently saved for as
many as six or more years until the store of goods
had grown considerably. At the same time,
other chief mourners were doing the same thing
and eventually several individuals would con-
clude that they had saved enough to make one
of these great festivals. The ceremony, when it
occurred, lasted five or more days and resem-
bled, in some respects, the potlatch on the
Northwest Coast. The Great Feast of the Dead
was one of the most common ceremonies in the
St. Michael area and runners were sent to
neighboring villages with invitations. Most
ceremonies held in the qasgiq, whatever their
origin, sought in one way or another not only to
honor the dead, but to placate the spirits of the
animals on which the Eskimos depended for
food. Festivals for the dead were celebrated by
coastal Eskimos as far north as Point Hope.

Observances similar to the one described
were also common along the Yukon River among
the neighboring Ingalik, Athapaskan-speaking
Indians whose culture was influenced consider-
ably by their Eskimo neighbors and whose social
life, including ceremonies in the qasgiq, has
been described in detail by the anthropologist
Cornelius Osgood. Of specific interest in the
present context is his description of a "lucky
pole ceremony," performed about the time of
the winter solstice. For this ceremony a spruce

tree was cut down to obtain a pole of a height
equal to the distance between the floor of the
qasgiq and the smoke hole. The pole was then
decorated with hawk feathers and, to the accom-
paniment of a ceremonial song, brought into
the qasgiq through the smoke hole. The pole's
maker had previously presided at a ceremony
in honor of the dead.

As the pole was brought into the qasgiq, the
person holding the butt end, a shaman, made
noises in imitation of birds and animals. At the
end of the ceremony, some men tried to climb
the pole, which had been made slippery by
many greasy hands. The successful climber
pulled the pole up through the smoke hole while
all others present threw up their hands and
yelled. According to Osgood, the purpose of
the "lucky pole ceremony" was to increase the
abundance of game animals.^ The presence in
the model qasgiq of figures raised on poles and
also carrying them certainly suggests the depic-
tion of a ceremony similar to those just
described .

The importance of the qasgiq in Alaskan
Eskimo life continued into the early 20th century.
Its eventual decline was due in part to the grad-
ual replacement of the aboriginal religion with
Christian beliefs and, a related development, to
the increasing importance of the nuclear family,
in which the men lived at home with their wives
and children. Even today, however, some vil-
lages maintain a structure like the traditional
qasgiq which serves as a meeting place for the
entire community, a place where local elections
are held, movies are shown, and other events of
general interest take place.

A model qasgiq like the one collected by
Marcus Cherry is not unique in assemblages of
19th-century Eskimo material culture in muse-
ums. Similar models dating from the same
period and from the same general area are to be
found in the collections of the Sheldon Jackson
Museum in Sitka, Alaska, the Lowie Museum
of Anthropology at the University of California
in Berkeley, and the Alaska State Museum in
Juneau. The economic impetus for their con-
struction may have been rooted in an attempt
by native Americans in Alaska to capitalize on a
vital aspect of their social and ceremonial life
certain to impress outsiders. These early tourists
were eager to bring back tangible examples of
the exotic aspects of a culture with which they
were becoming increasingly acquainted but
only little understood. D

7. Nelson, E.W., The Eskimo about Bering Strait. 18th An-
nual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, pp. 287-288.
2. Osgood, C, Ingalik Material Culture. Yale University
Publications in Anthropology, no. 22, 1940, pp. 422-423.

Hunters in a Changing World

by Jean Treloggen Peterson

Photos byjean Peterson and Warren Peterson

Today, hunting and gathering, the most
enduring and prevalent lifeway known
to humankind, is threatened in virtually
every corner of the world, where it has been hid-
den from the incursions of modern technology.
Without effective, rapid intervention the next
century will see only remnants of today's hunt-
ing populations, and with the loss of that life-
way, the world will lose the environmental
knowledge and the unique wilderness manage-
ment skills commanded by these various
peoples.

The great majority of earth's human popu-
lation have made their living by hunting, fishing,
and collecting wild fruits, grains, and vegetables.
With the simplest of tools on the one hand, and
a sophisticated knowledge of their environment
on the other, these peoples move their house-
holds from place to place as they procure their
food and other life essentials. Perhaps the most
persuasive testimony to the stability, attractive-
ness, and efficiency of the hunting-gathering

lifeway is that probably tens of thousands of

hunters persist in their lifeway to this day, on
each nonpolar continent, and despite the
advance of an urban industrial technology and
continued assaults on their wilderness environ-
ments and culture.

While a hunting-gathering lifeway is
dependent on the existence and management of
wilderness resources, it is only in recent centu-
ries that hunters have sought retreat in order to
inhabit these environments. For as long as we
can know, these peoples have been an important
part of the world economy. Early Chinese and
Roman writers often mention hunter-gatherers
as sources of wilderness products for places with
more developed economies. Often these "prim-
itive" peoples engaged in quite active world

Jean Treloggen Peterson is associate professor of Human
Development and Family Ecology at the University of Illi-
nois, Urbana.

An Agta man fashions

an arrow from a reed

shaft and metal point

shaped from a large

nail. Fletching is

attaclied with plant

16 fiber and tree resin.

trade, as, for example, the ancient ivory com-
merce of Africa or the New World fur trade of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Asian hunt-
ers have, from earliest recorded history, partic-
ipated in such trade, supplying bird's nests, tree
resins, rattan, spices, and other forest products
in exchange for cooking vessels, textiles, and
tools. To their nearest neighbors, usually farmers
or herders, hunters have offered food and other
wilderness products critical to the farming and
herding lifeway.

Contradicting long-standing impressions of
the hunting-gathering lifeway, anthropologists
have demonstrated in the last decade that these
peoples, whether dwellers in tropical forest (jun-
gle), desert, or the arctic, provide themselves
quite adequate food with a minimal labor
investment. In large part their success is depen-
dent on environmental knowledge and manage-
ment. Often revering their wilderness home as
a deity or seeing each object within it imbued
with a sacred force, they show uncanny aware-
ness of the location and habits of the plants and
animals within it. They may utilize controlled
burning to encourage propagation of certain
plants for their own use, or to attract the animals
they hunt. They understand the growing and
reproductive cycles of the local species and, for
example, propagate many of the wild food and
medicinal plants they use. In some cases, as
among the Philippine Negritos, women suckle
the abandoned or orphaned young of the species
they hunt. The same environmental concern is
manifest in their negative reactions to environ-
mental degradation such as irresponsible log-
ging or dynamiting of fishing waters.

Often their ecological understanding is quite
sophisticated: they recognize relationships
among species at an impressively knowledgea-
ble level. So exacting is this knowledge and
associated skills that, in many groups, years are
spent in mastering it and individuals do not
achieve their full productive potential until they
are 30 to 40 years of age. They understand the
economic and medicinal uses of virtually
hundreds of species, take only what they can
use, and ingeniously use all of what they take.
They are unquestionably unsurpassed in their
knowledge of the usefulness and care of the
wilderness. By living in harmony with their
environment, managing its resources, and main-
taining a low population density, they have pre-
served it and continue to harvest their livelihood
from it. The Negrito hunters of the Philippines
provide us with telling evidence of what the
hunter-gatherer subsistence mode has been, its
potential efficacy in a modern world, and the
tragedy of its demise.

The hunting-gathering lifeway persists

THE PHILIPPINES

Isabels Prov.

■ Nueva Vizcaya Prov.
L ^ Quirino Prov.

Zimbales Prov

^^o SULU
'^c- •' ARCHIPELAGO

throughout much of the Sierra Madre range and
adjacent coastal areas on Luzon, the northern-
most large island of the Philippines. In Palanan,
Isabela Province, on Luzon's northeastern coast,
about 800 Negrito hunters, who call themselves
Agta, share a bay watershed and adjoining
mountains with approximately 10,000 non-
Negrito farmers. The hunters typically move
every seven to ten days during the dry season,
January through September, three to five nuclear
families erecting simple lean-to shelters at each
site they inhabit, hunting pig and deer with bow
and arrow, and fishing the riverine or coastal
waters with simple spears or bows.

The rainy months, which inhibit mobility,
demand somewhat more substantial dwellings,
but any sunny day finds the Agta leaving this
more permanent camp of eight to ten families.

An area of logging,
carried out uy a re-
sponsible company
utilizing the best
equipment available to
prevent undue damage
to the forest.

-^.■i

and scattering to favorite fishing and iiunting
sites. Some of them, mostly old persons who lack
the strength or stamina for hunting, fishing, and
gathering, plant small garden plots to roots or
corn. In order to plant, they clear underbrush
and saplings from a forested area, burn the rub-
ble, and plant in the nutrient-rich ash. This age-
old practice, called swidden, is highly effective in
forested tropical areas with poor soils. Hunting
and fishing, however, continue to provide a sig-
nificant part of their caloric needs, and all of their
animal protein needs. So successful are they at
wild animal protein acquisition that they supply
not only themselves, but also their Palanan farm-
ing neighbors, with an ample protein supply.

These Palanan farmers, physically and cul-
turally different from the Agfa, plant a few
hectares* to corn, roots, and a little rice, using
hand plows and water buffalo. They keep few
domestic animals, and instead acquire animal
protein from the Agfa hunters. Over-all wild
animal protein consumption for the Palanan
and Agfa inhabitants of that watershed averages
six grams per capita per day, a figure which com-
pares most favorably with overall animal pro-
tein consumption for developing nations. In
exchange for the game and fish they provide,
Agfa receive corn and roots to satisfy most of
their carbohydrate staple needs.

In addition to food exchanges, farmers rely
on Agfa labor during planting and harvest, and
receive from them rattan for mending houses
and farm implements, houseposts, honey, and
often, as the farmers' families grow and land
needs increase, the opportunity to take over
abandoned Agfa garden plots for development
into farm fields. They often give Agfa clothing
and medicine, and shelter during typhoons.

The trade carried on by these two popula-

*One hectare equals about 2.47 acres.

tions has probably existed since agriculture
began in the area. Similar exchanges of protein
for carbohydrate foods are reported, as well,
among hunters or herders and farmers from else-
where in Southeast Asia, India, Africa, and the
New World. Beyond the actual trade relations
in Palanan, the two populations have indirect
but significant effects on each other's habitats
and, consequently, livelihood. Agfa, as noted,
often turn over old garden plots to farming
friends. By the time such transfer is made, grass
has entered the garden site, rendering it untilla-
ble with the simple Agfa swidden technology.
Were there no agricultural peoples to move onto
this land, these plots would be allowed to grow
back to forest for several generations. Palanan
farmers, however, with their plows, draft ani-
mals, and more labor-intensive systems can turn
these plots to productive farmland. The initial
Agfa clearing spares them hundreds of hours
of labor

Agta hunting activity, too, is of significant
benefit to their neighbors' farming endeavors.
Not only does it supply their meat, but it pro-
vides a check on major crop pests — deer and
pigs. Throughout the Philippines wherever any
patchy forest remains, farmers often lose 30 to
40 percent of their crop to foraging game. In
Palanan, too, farmers suffer high crop loss to
game, especially in areas where clearing is active.
Once an area is stabilized, however, they lose
only 10 percent of their crop and receive meat
which they value at five times the worth of the
crop lost. Agta hunting is the most effective
game control measure operating in the area.

The Palanan farmers have had an equally
beneficial effect on Agta lifeway and subsis-
tence. These farmers, whether clearing new
fields or expanding Agta garden plots, continue
to enlarge their fields piecemeal, taking several
years to fully clear a three- to five-hectare field
(equal to about two or three average city blocks).
Typically they remove grasses, brush, and
smaller trees, planting among the larger trees.
When larger trees are finally cut, high above the
ground to avoid the labor of cutting through the
buttressing roots, the stumps are left to rot before
removal is attempted, again to reduce labor
investment. Should crop yields fall after several
years, or family land needs change because of
births or deaths, the land may be abandoned and
allowed to regenerate to forest. Permanent
crops, usually fruit trees, remain, eventually to
be surrounded by their wild cousins.

These farming practices produce ideal con-
ditions for the promotion of "edge effect," or
"habitat mosaic" — terms ecologists use to refer
to the attraction of some species of animals to
areas offering environmental diversity. Those

Young people have
their arms and upper
torsos cut in geometric
designs to produce
decorative scars.

animal species which are dependent on two or
more environmental types, feeding perhaps on
grasslands at night and sheltering in the forest
during the day, are drawn to these kinds of con-
ditions, and exist in such areas in larger numbers
than in a single environmental type. Palanan

farm clearing provides the ideal mosaic of broken
cover, forest, and, importantly, the high biomass
of crop fields; in spite of Agfa hunting and farmer
efforts to deter game access to crops, pig and
deer continue to feed in farm fields. The wild
forest fruits, upon which pig and deer feed.

An Agta in the employ
of a farmer, clears
grass flmperata
cylendrica) which has
replaced the forest . 19

This beach campsite
provides easy access to
freshwater marine and
freshwater fishing and
hunting in the forest.

i^.

Mt^-^

Negritos of the Zam-
bales area on a reserva-
tion. The area has been
ahnost completely
deforested and they
now make a living
principally by selling
palm hearts and broom
grass. An under-
ground insect has
become a major protein
source, along with fish.

prosper as well under these clearing conditions;
many forest fruits are light-seekers which grow
in profusion on the edges of any clearing, or
appear in the initial successional period of forest
regeneration in abandoned gardens or fields.
Given these conditions it is apparent that
Agfa hunters, too, will cluster near those edges
that offer easy access to both trade and game.
Recreation of Agfa campsites over four genera-
tions shows them hugging the peripheries of
Palanan settlement for that period of time,
exploiting what they call the "best" hunting
sites, those adjacent to farmers' fields. Over
a four-month period in 1978, Agfa, inhabiting
three river valleys and connecting mountains
and coastal areas, killed 43.2 percent of pig

and 26.7 percent of deer within 200 meters of
farmers' fields, a total of 54.8 percent of pig
and 33.3 percent of deer within 1.5 kilometers
of fields. This bag, taken by only 17 hunters,
provided nearly 1,000 kilograms (about 2,200
lbs.) of meat to the 53 Agfa and Palanan families
inhabiting the area over a four-month period.
This represents an impressive supply of protein,
particularly given that this was the "off" hunting
season, the hot, drier period of the year when
game are lean, and some have retreated to the
cooler, forested interior.

What is less apparent than the attraction of
game and hunters to the forest-field edge is the
fact that farming expansion has apparently pro-
duced an absolute increase in the wild pig pop-

ulation. Pigs are an opportunistic species; that
is, they produce many young, up to ten in a litter,
many of which would perish under undisturbed
forest conditions. The forest fruits upon which
pig feed bear predominantly in October, Novem-
ber, and December, the period of heavy rain. By
March they are barren. Pigs mate during these
rainy months, and bear young in March and
April, nursing them as late as July. The period
of minimum forest food availability is the period
of maximum vulnerability for young pigs. Their
absolute population increase is effected by the
fact that they feed on farmers' rice in March until
it is harvested in May. May through July, they
feed on corn. Given this dependence on farm
crops, more young pigs survive. In fact, without
Agta hunting activity they would become an
intolerable crop pest; Agta hunting converts this
pest to food.

Certainly these forest animals live in com-
petition with an impoverished human popula-
tion. They do, however, meet a portion of their
food needs in the forest and, therefore, take few-
er resources from humans than would domestic
grazing animals. The Palanan case, with further
study, promises a means of suggesting approp-
riate game-land management measures to pro-
vide a significant food supply in Palanan and
elsewhere, without environrtiental degradation
and without devotion of large land tracts exclu-
sively to the production of animal protein foods,
as in the development of grazing programs. This
is a lesson of potential interest to the world, and
of compelling interest to hungry developing

nations. Game-land management alone cannot
achieve these results; we need to draw, as well,
on the skills, knowledge, and traditional sub-
sistence modes of indigenous peoples who have
been managing such environments long before
intercropping, commercial fertilizers, industrial-
ized agriculture, hydroelectric power, or other
modern developments were conceived of. In
most parts of the world, including the Philip-
pines, twentieth-century encroachment is elimi-
nating both the environment and the cultural
skills essential to such sound management.

Palanan has been a relatively protected
environment. No roads enter it; the rugged
Sierra Madre, treacherous coastline, vulnerabil-
ity to typhoons, and often dangerous currents
have shielded the area from major industrial and
agricultural development. The only logging com-
pany in Palanan must bring all equipment in by
barge and float out logs. Under these adverse
conditions the company has scarcely maintained
a foothold. Elsewhere in the Philippines hunters
have been displaced and disenfranchised. First,
the Spanish destroyed vast forested areas in the
construction and maintenance of their galleons;
then smallpox, introduced from Europe, deci-
mated both human and game populations. Later,
in the nineteenth century, the Spanish intro-
duced plantation agriculture, often to produce
non-food crops such as tobacco and abaca, which
claimed forested land and displaced food-
producing farmers to upland forested areas.

More recently multinational agro-industry,
logging, and mining have claimed traditional

This Agta man is
collecting tree resin
which will be used
as an adhesive to
attach an arrow
point to the shaft.

Art Agta woman
prepares agal, a
starchy food processed
from me pith of the
carioca palm. It must
be repeatedly leached
after the pulp is re-
moved from the palm.

An Agta couple xvork
together in the con-
struction of their
lean-to shelter. As he
prepares cord from
plant fiber she uses the
cord to attach shingles.

Holiday Happenings ^^S^^

This holiday season make Field Museum a
family destination! Here are some special
places and events you won't want to miss:

D "Wild Things: Film Series for Families. "
Celebrate the wonders of the animal world
through films, tours, and projects.

n "Parol — Lanterns from the Philip-
pines. " Make a Christmas decoration from
another land in this Family Feature.

□ "Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and
Northwest Coast. " See how Eskimos
really live.

For Holiday Shopping: The Museum

Store. Unusual items such as tiny tinkling
tree of brass bells from the Philippines;
ethnic jewelry; mounted butterflies and
shells; children's picture and coloring
books; or dinosaur T-shirts — all of these
help to make gift selection for anyone in
any price category a snap.
And for Holiday Feasting: The Museum
Cafeteria. Special holiday foods —
traditional Thanksgi\ing treats ditring
November, Christmas pastries and fruit
cake in December Take home some fruit
cake, or just feed your body and rest your
feet in our spacious cafeteria!

hunting lands, or have again displaced other
Filipinos who must in turn move in on their less
sophisticated neighbors to claim land and
rebuild the landscape in upland areas. These
changes often lead to runoff, soil slump, and
other destruction of fragile upland environ-
ments. Unchecked population growth, too, has
led to a necessary geographical expansion of
Philippine peoples. In many areas, once proud
and efficient hunters have lost their lifeway and
their dignity to one incursion or another. Dressed
in rags, suffering skin diseases born of a degen-
erated diet, often coerced into prostitution,
enhced to drink alcohol, ashamed of their new
poverty, their kinky hair, and dark skin, they
have had little opportunity or incentive for
transition to another productive lifeway, and
have clung tenaciously to some semblance of
hunting-gathering.

Near Clark Field, the U.S. Air Force Base,
in Luzon's Zambales Province, Negritos live off
the trash piles and largess of the U.S. military.
Lacking their own "jungle," they find periodic
employment providing jungle training to mil-
itary personnel. Elsewhere in Zambales
Negritos, trapped between plantation agricul-
ture moving up from the coast and logging in the
mountains, have now become the victims of
anomie. In Quirino and Nueva Vizcaya prov-
inces, areas largely stripped by logging com-
panies, Negritos travel long distances to obtain
minor forest products, such as healing herbs
and aphrodisiacs, for farmers who give them,
in exchange, gin, tobacco, rice, and canned fish
(many still observe a traditional taboo on the
consumption of domestic meat). In Bicol, where
coconut plantations have replaced the forest,
they gather copra, and for their efforts are pro-
vided sardines, rice, alcohol, and tobacco. Like
tens of thousands of others around the world,
these Negritos represent a tremendous pro-
ductive force robbed of their productivity, wit-
nessing the destruction of their environment in
this century.

Even on the inhospitable and isolated coast
of Northeastern Luzon the last decade has had
a dramatic impact. From 1970 to 1978 the number
of farmers in the three river valley study area had
quadrupled. This expansion by itself might have
had little effect on the Agta there. More signifi-
cant is the fact that the number of immigrants
from outside Palanan had also quadrupled.
These newcomers had brought with them pref-
erences for a cash economy that places new value
on land and labor, and for an animal protein
production technology which renders farmer
trade with Agta less attractive; they also had a
penchant for cutting down trees, thus creating a
naked landscape; made "pig bombs," which turn

hunting grounds to mine fields; and showed a
disdain for Agta lifestyle and dignity. The result
is an environment and a culture on the threshold
of irreversible change.

The immigrants brought with them the cash
to buy land and the industry for clearing land
and for generating more cash. The land in ques-
tion in this particular area had been proposed by
the Philippine government as an Agta civil res-
ervation. Nonetheless, unscrupulous middle-
men "purchased" plots of this land from the Agta
for anywhere from $1 . 50 to $50 for a hectare, then
sold it to immigrants. Most Agta are interested
in having access to hunting territory, not to
agricultural land. The presence of farmers has
not usually created a problem; some of these
newly arrived farmers, however, are different.
They do not like Agta to hunt or camp on "their"
land, and they do not like to trade in kind. Rath-
er, they purchase what they want with cash, and
pay cash for labor or for tree resins collected by
the Agta. Agta suddenly have reduced access to
hunting and trade and increased access to
quantities of cash. With little investment incen-
tive, many Agta spend their earnings on alcohol,
gambling, alcohol, and sweetened snack foods
such as cookies and candy.

The perspective and plight of these immi-
grant farmers deserves understanding as well.
Most of them came to Palanan as victims of and
refugees from landlessness and/or political
unrest and the threat of insurrection. They pur-
chased, often with no awareness of Agta land
rights, "their" land with hard-earned cash. Cer-
tainly their preference for producing their own
animal protein through the use of fish traps and
their fish preservation methods, rather than
engaging in transactions with Agta, cannot be
condemned in spite of its effect on the Agta.
Their treatment of the environment and indige-
nous populations, however, is open to criticism.

Unhke the Palanan farmers, they do not
create an untidy edge, a patchy forest cover near
their fields which might shelter game and pre-
vent undue runoff. They strip the landscape
whether or not they intend to plant that crop
year They then mine their fields and adjacent
forests with homemade "pig bombs," explosive
devices fashioned from matchheads, concealed
in yams, and intended to wound foraging pigs.
Also dangerous to humans, these bombs render
a good deal of Agta hunting ground unfit for
human access. What Palanan farmers have pre-
ferred to rely on Agta and time to provide —
cleared fields, animal protein, and crop protec-
tion— these invaders prefer to achieve through
their own intense labor investment, on their
own terms.

Perhaps the most damaging effect the new-

comers have had stems from their scorn of all
things Agta. While some immigrants have adapt-
ed successfully to the indigenous culture, others
berate the Agta for their nakedness and "idle-
ness," mock their dwellings, systematically
teach them to be ashamed and, in extreme cases,
get them drunk, cheat them at gambling, then
threaten violent retaliation if they fail to make
good their debts. It is very much the story of the
native Americans replayed a centurv or two
later, in a world that should have learned better.
Ultimately, these farmers cannot be held respon-
sible; they, too, are the products of the impact of
"development" on the larger landscape.

Logging, plantation agriculture, industry,
and dam projects displace farmers and hunters
throughout the Third World, often disregardful
of the very real economic value of those indi-
genous technologies or the environments they
maintain and use so well. Rural areas are conse-
quently deluged with landless newcomers,
struggling for subsistence in an environment
which offers diminished resources. Traditional
communities often find their resources strained,
as well, by the establishment of nonfood pro-
ducing communities of loggers or miners in the
area. On the northeast coast of Luzon, a three-
dav hike north of Palanan, a logging camp of
about 4,000 persons depends heavily on the food
production efforts of Palanan hunters, fishers,
and farmers. While the Palanan economy might.

with planning, expand to support this additional
population, fortuitous exploitation of that envi-
ronment produces a strain which can certainly
bring about environmental degradation with
time. Its immediate effect can be observed in the
deteriorated health of the indigenes, and in
death rates, particularly among children.

The hunters' loss is ours, not only in huma-
nistic and spiritual terms, but in sound economic
and environmental terms. As manv begin to
question the ability of multinational industrial
complexes to sustain the earth and its life forms,
it seems urgent that we assess the economic and
environmental viability and sustainability of
those lifeways which have survived for so long
and apparently so well. They need not, and
should not, be preserved as living museums.
They should, however, be tapped to reveal
means of using the earth's precious resources to
man's benefit without destroying them. Their
potential integration into the modern economy
to provide food and wilderness products to a
wider market, and to provide models for the
management and restoration of fragile environ-
ments, should be explored. Ironically, this cen-
tury, which mav most need the maintenance
skills hunter-gatherers can offer us, may destroy
those populations which have, through suc-
cessful environmental management, sur\'ived
so long, as examples of the majority of human-
kind's tenure on this earth. D

An A^ta uvman

ronstruit- ncrjamilxi's

lean-to shelter. A

relative helps her by

fashioning palm fronds

24 into shingles.

OUR ENVIRONMENT

Natural Insecticides

Those electronic insect-zappers used to kill
mosquitoes and other insect pests may
seem a modern triumph, but two Cana-
dian researchers have discovered that
Nature, as usual, was already way ahead.

Members of the sunflower family,
including daisies, black-eyed susans and
marigolds, contain chemicals known as
polyacetylenes, and as these chemicals
sop up sunlight they become toxic to
insects; their poison loses its punch in the
dark. Researchers say they do not yet
know precisely how the plants convert the
sun's energy into a chemical insect-zap,
but they do know that the zaps can be
powerful. Says one; "We have found one
compound to be more toxic to mosquito
larvae in the light than DDT."

Carrots and wild parsnips contain
similar chemicals that can kill caterpillars
feeding on them during daylight hours.
Researchers hope some of these com-
pounds will be useful for crop protection
and provide more environmentally accept-
able alternatives to agriculturists.

Herring Gulls and Sunlight

Solar technology is still a comparatively
new science, and new developments are
reported almost daily. Birds, however,
have been studying it for a long time.

A Ohio State University zoologist
studying the behavior of herring gulls
finds that on a very hot day the birds face
directly into the sun, so that the rays hit
the smallest possible amount of body sur-
face and are reflected from the white
feathers of the breast. On cool days, the
burds turn their backs on the sun, absorb-
ing heat through their grey wings. The
scientist estimates that they absorb about
four times as much heat with their backs
turned to the sun.

The gulls also have learned that the
more oblique the angle at which the sun
strikes them, the less heat they receive,
and they continually adjust this angle
according to whether they are hot or cold.

It has long been known that certain
cold-blooded vertebrates as well as inver-
tebrates orient themselves to the sun in
comparable ways.

Catfish on the March

Walking catfish that have multiplied into
the millions have reached Tampa in a 15-
year trek from south Florida, and may

march into Georgia, wildlife researchers
say.

The Asian fish, which move by drag-
ging themselves by spikey pectoral fins
"like infantrymen holding rifles in their
elbows," are moving northward from
pond to pond on a journey that began at
Boca Raton 15 years ago when a dozen
escaped from a fish farmer's exotic species
collection.

The oxygen-breathing fish, which can
crawl over land up to a mile a night, appar-
ently have taken advantage of Florida's
thousands of ponds, lakes, and canals to
move anywhere from 180 to 250 miles,
wildlife experts say.

Wolves Back to Glacier?

Researchers hope to reestablish a wolf
population in Glacier National Park by
using controlled burning techniques to
create moose and beaver habitat, the
wolves' primary prey. It is hoped the new
food source will attract nearby wolves
from Canada, where they are still rela-
tively numerous.

New Weapon Against Red Fire Ant

No insect is loathed more than the red fire
ant, Solowpsis iuvicta, in the southern
United States. Entrenched in about
230,000 acres in 13 states, the ant lives in
colonies of up to 50,000 insects that inhabit
mounds up to three feet high and hard
enough to wreck farm machinery that
runs into them. The ants are aggressive
and have a painful sting, which has been
blamed for human deaths as well as that of
livestock. Accidentally imported from
South America around 1900, the ant has so
far survived all efforts to do it in, including
a federal eradication campaign that came
to an end in the 1970's when the insecti-
cide Mirex, which the ants were surviving
anyhow, was banned as a potential
human carcinogen.

The Department of Agriculture is
now claiming considerable success with a
new chemical that may work where insec-
ticides failed. The substance, called MV-
678, is a synthetic that mimics the ant's
own juvenile hormones. It is dangerous,
the department says, only to insects, and a
"very narrow" range of insects at that. It
does not kill the ants, but retards their
growth until the ant society collapses.

In tests, MV-678 has been mixed with
soybean oil and corn grits and sprayed
around the ants' nests. Worker ants eat
the baits and go home to feed the imma-

ture ants, including the next generation's
cohort of workers, by regurgitation. The
chemical swiftly degrades in the environ-
ment, according to the Agriculture
Department, but not in the stomachs of
the worker ants.

At first, the immature ants dosed with
MV-678 by their nursemaids developed
into malformed sexually mature ants, but
later failed to develop at all, remaining in
the juvenile stage — and staying home in
the nest. Without the next crop of workers
to feed it, the colony dies, the department
reported; success was claimed in abolish-
ing 80 to 90 percent of fire ant colonies
with two applications of the hormone.

MV-678 was developed by Meyer
Schwarz, a chemist with the Agricultural
Research Service of the Agriculture
Department in Beltsville, Md., and has
been licensed to Stauffer Chemical Com-
pany for further development and testing.

The Lowly But Invaluable Earthworm

How long does an earthworm live? Esti-
mates range from three to ten years — a
short life, but one of great usefulness. In
the course of years, wormcasts will build
up a surface layer of soil of almost unbe-
lievable depth, amounting in weight to
several tons per acre per year. With their
mineral-rich castings, the worms make
available to plants the nutrients in the soil.
The diligent earthworm may well be
the world's oldest labor saver, at least as
far as man is concerned. Charles Darwin
reminds us that long before man was
around to invent the plow, "the land was,
in fact, regularly plowed, and still con-
tinues to be thus plowed, by earthworms.
It may be doubted whether there are many
other animals which have played so impor-
tant a part in the history of the world."

November and December at Field Museum

November 16 throu^ December 13

Continuing Exhibits

"The Last and First Eskimos." October 9, 1982 to
Januarv 23, 1983. This photographic display cap-
tures a culture at its turning point. It documents
a group of Eskimos including grandparents, who
follow traditional ways, and their grandchildren,
who live in the white man's world. It is the joint
effort of photographer Ale.x Harris and psychi-
atrist Dr. Robert Coles. First floor. Hall 9.

"The People and Art of the Philippines." Through
December 31, 1982. The 420 outstanding exam-
ples of Philippine arts and crafts reveal the fas-
cinating history of this Southeast Asian nation.
The prehistoric ceramics and gold pieces, the
Catholic religious art, the gailv colored textiles
from southern Muslim tribes and the intricate
wood car\ings from still-primitive northern peo-
ples are among the exhibit highlights. Second
floor. Hall 26.

Hall of Ancient Egyptl\ns. "In the Shadow of
the P\Tamid" exhibit area, which updated Field
Museum's already excellent Egv'ptian collection,
will be one vear old this November. The exhibit
opens the interior of 4,000-vear-old tomb rooms
so that Wsitors can now admire their wall canings
at close range. Visitors may also view exhibits
detailing life in prehistoric and early historic eras
of Egj'pt, photomurals explaining how the tomb
chapels came to Field Museum, and a replica of
the chapel of Nakht on loan from the Metropolitan
Museum of Art. This chapel displays facsimiles
of some of the finest and most colorful Eg\^tian
tomb paintings ever discovered. Ground floor,
Hall J.

New Programs

"Wild Things: Film Series for Families." Parents
and children can investigate the fate of some birds
and animals in today's world through these films
and related tours and art projects. The series is
recommended for families with children age 5
and older. Free with Museum admission. Meet at
Lecture Hall I near the West Entrance. Dec. 4 —
Sky Lords: Birds of Prey: "Last Stronghold of the
Eagles," film; "Osprey's Domain," film; "We Care
About Eagles," slide show; and "Eagle Food Chain
Mobile," art activity. Dec. 11 — Herds on Hoof:

"Sable Island," film; "Big Horn," film; "A Walk on
the Wild Side," tour; and "Wild Horse Animated
Slide Show," art acti\'ity. Dec. 18 — Water Birds:
"Project Puffin," film; "The Loon's Necklace,"
film; "The Owl Who Married a Goose," film; and
"Design a Duck," art acti\at\'.

"Parol — Star Lanterns from the Philippines." A
Family Feature. Families can visit "The People and
Art of the Philippines" exhibit on their own and
then follow a trail of Philippine star lanterns to the
North Meeting Room. After a demonstration on
how to make this Philippine decoration, which
s\Tnbolizes the Star of Bethlehem, families can
make their owti "Parols" out of bamboo and
colored tissue. Free with Museum admission.
Saturday, December 18 at 2:30 p.m.; Sunday,
December 19 at 1 p.m.

Coming in January:

"Winter Fun." A series of weekend workshops
for children will explore natural histon' through
tours, films, and art acti\'ities. Members will
receive a Winter Fun Brochure in December with
a complete schedule. Call the Museum's Depart-
ment of Education during business hours at
322-8854 to order a brochure.

Continuing Programs

Parent/Child Workshops. The four workshops on
No\'ember 20 offer parent-child teams a chance to
u'ork on a craft project or join a participator^'
e\'ent. Sessions are ke\'ed to child's age.

"Hadrosaur Habitat," 10 a.m. to 12 noon, for
ages 5-6. Make a dinosaur habitat in your owti
shoe box.

"The Bookbinder's Art," 10 a.m. to 12 noon and
1 p.m. to 3 p.m., for ages 7-9. Make sheets of paper
in the morning and in the afternoon bind them
into a book.

"Naturalists Afield," 1 p.m. to3p.m., for ages 5-6.
Use your senses to discover the world of nature.

"Tribal Markings," 1 p.m. to 3 p.m., for ages 7-8.
Learn how other cultures use personal decora-
tions and then decorate yourself.

Edward E. Ayer Film Lecture Series. Travel around
the world \ia film every Saturday afternoon in

November and December at Field Museum

November. Narrated by the filmmakers them-
selves, these free 90-minute film/lectures begin at
1:30 in James Simpson Theatre. Admission is
through the West Entrance. Members receive
priorit}' seating. Nov. 20, "Antarctica," with Ted
Walker; Nov. 27, "Italy," with Ted Bumiller.

Weekend Events Line. A prerecorded telephone
message gives up-to-date information about such
weekend programs as Discovery Programs, Fam-
ily Features, films, and special programs. Call
(312) 322-8854 weekends.

Weekend Discovery Programs. New vistas of nat-
ural history are opened through these tours, films,
slide programs, and participatory activities. On
Nov. 20, 11:30 to 3:30, a day of tours and dem-
onstrations is planned to celebrate the first anni-
versary of the opening of the tomb chapel room of
Unis-Ankh and Netjer-User. Nov. 27, 1:30 p.m.,
"The Ancient Egyptians"; Nov. 28, 1:30 p.m., "Sky
Lords: Birds of Prey." December's programs in-
clude tours of Northwest Coast exhibit, tours of
the Egyptian Hall, and slide programs on dino-
saurs and dinosaur specialists. Dec. 4, 1 p.m.,
"Indians of Tide and Tundra"; Dec. 5, 1 p.m.,
"Cope and Marsh: The Saurian Scandals"; Dec. 11,

1:30 p.m., "Red Land/Black Land"; Dec. 12,
1 p.m., "Sauropods: The Ultimate Dinosaurs."

Winter Journey. "Eskimos — Arctic Hunters."
This self-guiding tour will help vou discover how
the Eskimo hunters succeeded in the world's most
difficult environment. Free Journev pamphlets
are available at Museum entrances.

Volunteer Opportunities. Volunteers are needed
to give Geology programs to school groups and
to give weekday and Saturday programs in the
Pawnee Earth Lodge. Also limited openings for
volunteers in Geology and Zoology. Contact
Volunteer Coordinator at 922-9410, ext. 360.

Museum Hours. The Museum is open daily from
9 a.m. to 4 p.m. The free day is Thursday. It is
closed on Thanksgiving, Christmas Day and
New Year's Day.

The Museum Library is open weekdays from 9 a.m.
to 4 p.m. Obtain a pass at the reception desk,
main floor. The Library will be closed Thanks-
giving, the day before Christmas, and on
Christmas Day.

Museum Phone: (312) 922-9410

0^^^^ Holiday Happenings '^^*^'^

This holiday season make Field Museum a
family destination! Here are some special
places and events you won't want to miss:

n "Wild Things: Film Series for Families. "
Celebrate the wonders of the animal world
through films, tours, and projects.

n "Parol — Lanterns from the Philip-
pines. " Make a Christmas decoration from
another land in this Family Feature.

n "Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and
Northwest Coast. " See how Eskimos
reaUy live.

For Holiday Shopping: The Museum

Store. Unusual items such as tiny tinkling
tree of brass bells from the Philippines;
ethnic jewelry; mounted butterflies and
sheUs; children's picture and coloring
books; or dinosaur T-shirts — all of these
help to make gift selection for anyone in
any price category a snap.

And for Holiday Feasting: The Museum
Cafeteria. Special holiday foods —
traditional Thanksgiving treats during
November, Christmas pastries and fruit
cake in December Take home some fruit
cake, or just feed your body and rest your
feet in our spacious cafetjeria!

EDITH FLEMING

9'»& PLEASANT

OAK PARK ILL 60302

x^^x-^^^^.w

For Christinas
Give FleldMuseum

.. w .v^^

Whether you are tning to decide on a Christmas
gift for the small child or for "the man who has
everN-thing," a gift of Membership in Field
Museum is always appropriate.

For the adult, a Membership can proxide a wealth
of opportunities to ftirther explore the realm of natural
histor>'; for the child it can open the doors to a lifetime
of scientific interest or professional endeavor Infinitely
more than a storehouse of fascinating specimens and
exhibits. Field Museum ofiers to its Members at every
age level a varied selection of exciting learning experien-
ces \ia the classroom, workshop, laboratory, film lecture,
or field trip.

Perhaps equally important; with a Field Museum
Membership you are gi^'ing a shared relationship, for
Field Museum is indeed its Members.

^%^!J^.^

■^^m^^

clip and mail this coupon or facsimile

to: Membership Department

Field Museum of Natural Histor\-
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, II 6()6a=>

I wish to send gift memberships to the following:

Gift recipient's name

Mv name

Street

CitA-

State

Zip

Cixs

State

Zip

Cit\

State

Zip

_ Indi\idual membership 820
Lj Family membership 825

n Indi\idual membership 820
n Family membership 825

n Cheek enclosed payable to Field Museum
D Please bill me

D Charge to Master Charge acc't #

n Charge to \'isa acc't # _

n Send gift card annoimccmcnt in my name

Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin

December 1982

Calendar for 1983

Field Museum

of Natural History

Bulletin

Published by

Field Museum of Natural History |

Founded 1893

President: Willard L. Boyd

Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr

Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten

Production Liaison: Kathryn Hargrave

Calendar: Mary Cassai

Staff Photographer: Ron Testa

Board OF Trustees

Life Trustees

James). O'Connor

Harry O. Bercher

chairman

Joseph N. Field

Mrs. T. Stanton Armour

Clifford C. Gregg

George R. Baker

Samuel Insull, Jr.

Robert O. Bass

William V. Kahler

Gordon Bent

William H.Mitchell

Bowen Blair

John M. Simpson

Willard L Boyd

J. Howard Wood

Stanton R. Cook

O.C. Davis

William R. Dickinson, Jr.

Thomas E. Donnelley 11

Marshall Field

Richard M. Jones

Hugo J. Melvoin

Charles F. Murphy, Jr.

Lorin I. Nevling, Jr

James H. Ransom

John S. Runnells

William L. Searle

Edward Byron Smith

Robert H. Strotz

John W. Sullivan

William G. Swartchild, Jr

Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken

E. Leland Webber

Julian B. Wilkins

Blaine J. Yarrington

CONTENTS

December 1982
Volume 53, Number 11

1983: The Year of the Plant

by William Burger, chairman. Department of Botany

Appointment Calendar for 1983

Featuring botanical photos taken in or near
Chicago by William Burger

COVER

Spring beauty, Claytonia virginica.
Photo by William Burger

Fi^id Museum of Natural History Bulletm (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined
J uly August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, II h06(l? Sulsscriptions: Sb 00 annuallv. S3. 00 tor schools. Museum meml>ership
includes Builcliii subscription. Opinions expressed bv authors are their own and do not
nccessariiv rcilect the polic\" ol Field .Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum
ptione: (312) ^22-9410. Postmaster: Please send from 3579 to Field Museum of Natural Histor\',
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second class postage
paid at Chicago, 11,

Turban squash {Cucurbita mnxima variety turbaniformis). These specimens were used as models for the reproduction on view
in the Hall of Useful Plants (Hall 28).

1983: The Year of the Plant

by William Burger
Chairman, Department of Botany

The calendar for 1983, comprising this issue
of the Bulletin, features plant life and is
part of Field Museum's focus on botany in 1983.
Plant science is one of the four major research
areas at Field Museum, the others being
anthropology', geologv', and zoology'.

What is especially significant about botany
at Field Museum in 1983 is the reopening of one
of our largest halls. Plants of the World (Hall
29). Renoyation will include reinstallation of all
exhibits (except dioramas, which remained
intact), reorganization of materials, rehanging
the mural-size paintings, installing nevy light-
ing and carpeting, and constructing a lounge
that will look eastward to Lake Michigan

Field Museum houses the largest and most

comprehensiye collection of plant models in
the world; these form the core of the newly
renovated hall. The model-building program
was begun by former Museum president Stanle\'
Field in 1909 and continued for oyer half a cen-
tury. The models coyer all groups of plants,
from algae and fungi to conifers and flowering
plants. A new exhibit floor plan will allo\y vis-
itors to compare related groups of plants in a
more meaningful way. Special areas are de\'oted
to the naming of plants, the system of classifi-
cation, flovyers and their pollination sv'stems,
and dispersal of seeds and fruit. We belie\'e
Hall 29 to be the world Is largest single botanical
museum exhibit. Don't miss it when it opens
in 1983.

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NEW YEAR'S DAY
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MARTIN LUTHER
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(1929-68)

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27 28

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DECEMBER

S M T W T F S

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12 13 14 15 16 17 18

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MARCH

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6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30 31

ST VALENTINE'S

PRESIDENT'S DAY

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MARCH

S M T W T F S
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26 27 28 29 30

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S M T W T r s
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3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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24 25 26 27 28 29 30

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MEMORIAL DAY

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JMk

first quarter

Delta

Aquarid

meteor

shower

(38/hr)

00
(N

Sun furthest
from Earth
(94.5 million
miles away)

O
(N

AUGUST

S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31

INDEPENDENCE ^.
DAY A

If)
(N

JUNE

S M T W T F 5
12 3 4

5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29 30

to ^1

in
-2

•

new moon

^oK

f=;

(0
01

SEPIEMBER

S M T W T r s
1 2 3

4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30

CD
(N

JULY

S M T W T F S
1 2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31

<*^

Perseid
meteor
shower
(65/hr)

last quarter

lull moon

o
to

CO •!

tirst quarter

(N
CN

00
CN

o
y

oc^ '

D CJ)

mco
CO ■^

o
-a

o
to

<
Z
<

<
z
z
tn
o
oc

CN Ol

/as( quarter

first quarter

OCTOBER

S M T W T F S

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

16 17 18 19 20 21 22

23 24 25 26 27 28 29

30 31

AUGUST

S M T W T F S
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31

h'"--;-

•* •> ^

3«» • " 5*:

-"<^-

, '>

>^^^-^^-

cr'-:*^^

/■A^:

sBf^

• » ••;"-■

"^r-^i

. ■■.<vr-

*^^.

-^i

tri:

:-^^

-^^i:

?<?r^^ii

iL^^^i

V ■ -•'.,'■

.^^■^T

-v-^

1^1^'t

.^#, ■>

s v. ;!

A.v>

^%#;

.*-.--^

J^.

fH*^^^ ^V,

. --.-vV •

%^'.

7.V

Jilr-KV

H
U

CN
CN

lull moon

last quarter

^ •!

lirst quarter

Orionid
meteor
shower

CN ,;

MOVEMBER

S M T W T F S
12 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30

COLUMBUS DAY

\ z

CN \

SEPTEMBER

S M T W T F S
1 2 3

4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30

\ o

CN V

3
SO

H
CD

D
cn

first quarter

CO
CN

^ •s

^ ^

VETERANS DAY

CXD

lO
CN

THANKSGIVING
Museum closed

Taurid
meteor
shower
(leihr)

o
to

_|Z

z"^

CN
CN

DECEMBER

S M T W T F S
1 2 3

4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30 31

00
CN

OCTOBER

S M T W T F S

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

16 17 18 19 20 21 22

23 24 25 26 27 28 29

30 31

full moon

[^ *
CN

1—

Q
<

m
Q

2,10

O *0 fi?

<X)

o
to

HANUKKAH

first day of winter .

00
CN

Geminid
meteor
shower

(55/hr)

JANUARY

S M T W T F S

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 1 1 12 13 14

15 16 17 18 19 20 21

22 23 24 25 26 27 28

29 30 3 1

first quarter

O 0|

c - =:

S ^1

last quarter

NOVEMBER

5 M T W T r S
12 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30

If)

(/) 3-0

CC M 10
X 30
US U

EDITH FLEIIMG

9'*G PLEASAf^T

OAK PARK ILL 60302

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Full text of "Field Museum of Natural History bulletin"

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