Draft:Males in Ancient Rome

Differences between Social Classes

File:Insula reconstruction.jpg

Reconstruction of an insula the multi-storey apartment blocks where many ordinary urban residents lived.

It is essential to note that Roman society was not homogeneous, as there existed several free and non-free groups. First, the elite men could hold office, command armies, and acquire wealth. Second, members of the equestrian class and successful citizens could also advance their careers in administration, commerce, or the professions. Third, working men, farmers, and artisans earned their living through wages, land, and trade, but they also faced the risks of debt and poverty. Fourth, freedmen were generally unfree but often gained social acceptability, nevertheless, they could be exploited for labor. Finally, enslaved men were entirely dependent on others under Roman law and could be employed in various types of labor. Fifth, it is also vital to understand that the status of these men was not fixed but dependent on historical, regional, and individual factors. In other words, citizenship, wealth, and social standing were often closely entangled, and thus, any free man could be relatively poor, and any enslaved person might possess extraordinary skills recognized by Roman law. This complexity is applied to studying the lives of the city’s elite, who were far more numerous than the population of the capital.

Citizenship and Political Life

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Marble statue of a dignitary wearing a toga c. 50 CE (Altes Museum, Berlin).

What distinguished a citizen from a non-citizen? In short, they were entitled to specific rights and bound by certain restrictions, which were not always strictly enforced. Moreover, the status of a citizen varied depending on where they lived. Thus, a Roman male citizen in the city enjoyed greater privileges and responsibilities than a citizen in the provinces who resided in towns. In turn, provincial towns had different rules and resources from rural areas. In addition, the ad hoc nature of Roman colonial expansion meant that the franchise did not always reflect the realities of men who lived outside of the capital. Since the Constitution of AD 212 gave citizenship to all free men, the distinction between citizens and non-citizens was no longer as relevant, although the free men continued to differ significantly from the enslaved ones.

Provincial and Regional Differences

File:Testudo formation Trajan's Column.jpg

Roman legionaries in testudo (tortoise) formation as shown on Trajans Column.

Not all Romans were citizens of the capital city. Apart from the city, there were also other urban centers in the Roman Empire. More broadly, there were rural areas, commercial centers, and military installations that could be found throughout Italy and the provinces. In other words, the Romans lived in regions that differed greatly in terms of climate, terrain, and local economies. There were local dialects, cultural traditions, and dietary staples that varied from one settlement to another. For example, a merchant from an Italian port city would have had access to luxury goods from abroad, which was unavailable to the farmer from the South.

While the Roman Empire connected the world with roads, maritime routes, administrative officials, and legions, it does not mean that all the inhabitants were the same. First of all, the architecture, food, clothing, and religious practices were different. In addition, different communities adopted Roman culture in unique ways, as local traditions were intertwined with Roman innovations. Finally, it is essential to recognize that some groups of men had greater access to experiencing other cultures than others. In other words, soldiers and officials could travel to all parts of the empire, while the majority of farmers and merchants rarely left their villages or towns. Thus, when speaking of the typical Roman, it is essential to remember that there was nothing typical for him. In other words, one should not generalize based on one city, its province, or local community because each had its unique characteristics.

Evidence for Men’s Lives

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Wall painting of a banquet scene from Pompeii (Naples National Archaeological Museum).

What kinds of evidence do historians use to understand how men lived? First, archaeological excavations reveal traces of buildings, tools, weapons, clothing, jewelry, cosmetics. Second, inscriptions could contain information about the social status and professions of men. For example, a marble tablet could commemorate a wealthy citizen’s generous donations to the city. Finally, works of art, poetry, and literature were created by men and reflected their worldview if the audience is correctly identified. Thus, to understand the typical Roman, it is necessary to study all three types of sources, each of which contains invaluable evidence. At the same time, it is vital to consider that each source reflects the views of a particular person and is therefore biased.

The written sources are the most challenging since the authors’ social status, occupations, and education levels were different. For example, only rich men could afford to write books, and their works were usually focused on political life, morals, and the lives of their peers. In addition, it is essential to remember that many authors used satire and sarcasm to describe real people and events. Finally, official documents contain laws that governed the lives of Roman citizens, although they were not always followed. It is also worth noting that most of these sources come from Pompeii, which is a volcanic city that was abruptly buried by lava several decades earlier. Thus, the presence of diverse artifacts and inscriptions in this place is not surprising. Nevertheless, the fact that these things belong to this place and time is undeniable, and therefore, the sources are useful but must be used with caution.

Further considerations

The men of Rome were not the same. Thus, a slave and an Emperor belonged to different worlds, but the former might have been significantly wealthier, and the latter could have struggled to pay off debts. Finally, a person’s profession and place of residence were also essential. Even more important were the social class and citizenship because they determined a person’s status and opportunities. It is also noteworthy that an individual’s age and the age of his children, if any, were also significant. In other words, each Roman was unique, and the lives of any two men could be completely different. Finally, it is vital to remember that personal letters and writings were often the only way a man could express his thoughts. Thus, when studying the history of the ancient world, it is vital to distinguish between the lives of individuals whose contributions survived the centuries and those who are forgotten and known only through the descriptions of others.

Social class, citizenship, and occupation were fluid in Republican Rome. In other words, the same group of men could have considerable wealth and power one year and then lose everything the next. In addition, economic, military, and political events could affect the status of entire communities and regions. Thus, one must be careful when using terms that describe social groups because their meanings were not fixed. Even more confusing were the relationships between these groups, which varied from community to community and time period to time period. Some of these complexities will help understand the discussions of family and marriage, citizenship and residency, soldiering and military service.

It is essential to keep in mind that these sources were created by people who represented their views and biases. In other words, the writers belonged to the elite groups of Roman society, and the lives of ordinary people and enslaved men were not of interest to them. However, this does not mean that the lives of these people are not worth studying. On the contrary, their lives deserve attention and research using the available sources, and therefore it is essential to examine them with due attention and fairness.

Men in Rome lived their lives differently because of their status in society, citizenship, religion, family, and the state. In other words, all Roman men were subject to specific social hierarchies, and therefore their daily lives were built around political, military, and economic issues. Ordinary men earned their living by working, while the elite accumulated huge fortunes by investing in various business ventures. Soldiers defended the city and the empire, and enslaved men were at the lowest level of society, performing menial tasks for their masters. Written sources, works of art, archaeological finds, and military equipment allow us to reconstruct the lives of Roman men and evaluate the differences between the lives of free men and enslaved people.

Further reading

• Kordas, Ann; Lynch, Ryan J.; and Nelson, Brooke. World History, Volume 1 to 1500 section 7.1 “The Daily Life of a Roman Family.” OpenStax. Web.
• Metropolitan Museum of Art. Roman Art: A Resource for Educators. Web.
• University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. “Domestic Life.” Web.
• British Museum. “Legion: Life, in the Roman Army.” Web.
• Juvenal. Satire 3. Translated by G. G. Ramsay. Fordham University Internet Ancient History Sourcebook. Web.
• Hallett, Judith P. And Marilyn B. Skinner, editors. Roman Sexualities. Princeton University Press. Web.