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Gwajin ruwa

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ImageGwajin ruwa
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Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare naprocedure (en) Fassara
Measures (en) FassaraIngancin ruwa
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Ana gudanar da gwajin ruwa a wani wurin magani da ke Broken Bow, Oklahoma

Gwajin ruwa bayani ne mai faɗi ga hanyoyi daban-daban da ake amfani da su don nazarin ingancin ruwa . Ana gudanar da miliyoyin gwaje-gwajen ingancin ruwa kowace rana don cika sharuɗɗan ƙa'ida da kuma kiyaye aminci. [1]

Ana iya yin gwaji don kimantawa:

  • Ingancin ruwa na yanayi ko muhalli - ikon jikin ruwa na saman ruwa don tallafawa rayuwar ruwa a matsayin yanayin halittu . Duba Kula da Muhalli, Sigogi na Ingancin Muhalli na Ruwa Mai Daɗi da Manhajar Bioindicator .
  • Ruwan shara - halayen gurɓataccen ruwa ( najasar gida ko sharar masana'antu ) kafin a yi magani ko bayan an yi magani. Duba ilimin kimiyyar muhalli da kuma alamun ingancin ruwan shara .
  • Ingancin " ruwan da ba a tace ba " - halayen tushen ruwa kafin a yi amfani da shi don amfani a cikin gida ( ruwan sha ). Duba nazarin ruwan bacteriological da gwaje-gwaje na musamman kamar datti da ruwan tauri .
  • Ingancin ruwa "wanda aka gama" - ruwan da aka yi wa magani a wata masana'antar tsarkake ruwa ta birni. Duba nazarin ruwa na ƙwayoyin cuta da Nau'i: Alamun ingancin ruwa .
  • Dacewar ruwa don amfanin masana'antu kamar dakin gwaje-gwaje, masana'antu ko sanyaya kayan aiki . Duba ruwa mai tsabta .

Dokokin gwamnati

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Dokokin gwamnati da suka shafi gwajin ruwa da ingancin ruwa ga wasu manyan ƙasashe an bayyana su a ƙasa.

Sin

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Ma'aikatar Kare Muhalli

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Ma'aikatar Kare Muhalli ta Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Sin ita ce ma'aikatar kare muhalli ta ƙasar da ke da alhakin kare iska, ruwa, da ƙasar Sin baki ɗaya daga gurbacewa da kazanta. Tana ƙarƙashin Majalisar Jiha kai tsaye, kuma doka ta ba ta iko tare da wajaba mata aiwatar da manufofin muhalli da kuma tabbatar da dokoki da ƙa'idodin muhalli. Baya ga rukunin ayyukanta na ƙa'idodi, tana ba da kuɗi tare da tsara bincike da ci gaba.[2] Duba Ma'aikatar Kare Muhalli ta Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Sin.

Kalubale da muhawara na dokoki

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A ƙarshen shekara ta 2009, Ma'aikatar Gidaje da Ci Gaban Birane da Karkara ta ƙasar Sin ta gudanar da wani bincike domin auna ingancin ruwan da ake samarwa a biranen ƙasar Sin, wanda ya bayyana cewa "aƙalla 1,000" na masana'untun tace ruwa daga cikin masana'antu fiye da 4,000 da aka bincika a matakin gunduma zuwa sama sun kasa cika sharuɗɗan gwamnati. Ba a taɓa sakin sakamakon binciken a hukumance ga jama'a ba, amma a shekarar 2012, jaridar Century Weekly ta ƙasar Sin ta wallafa bayanan binciken da aka fallasa. Maida martani ga hakan, Wang Xuening, jami'in ma'aikatar lafiya, ya fitar da alkaluma da aka samo daga tsarin sa ido na gwaji a shekarar 2011 inda ya nuna cewa kashi 80% na ruwan famfo na biranen ƙasar Sin ya kai matsayin da ake buƙata.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Sabbin mizanai na ruwan sha na ƙasar Sin sun haɗa da alamomi 106. Daga cikin manyan biranen ƙasar Sin 35, kashi 40% ne kawai na biranen ke da ikon yin gwajin dukkan alamomi 106. Sashen da ke kula da ruwan gida da sashen kula da lafiya za su shiga tattaunawa don ƙayyade sakamakon fiye da 60 na sabbin matakan; saboda haka ba lallai ba ne a gwada ruwan ta amfani da kowane alama. Rarraba ingancin ruwa ya dogara ne akan matsakaicin kashi 95% na gabaɗaya don cika sharuɗɗan gwamnati. Maimaita duba ingancin ruwa a masana'untun tace ruwa sau biyu ne a shekara.[3]

Pakistan

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Hukumar Binciken Albarkatun Ruwa ta Pakistan

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An kuma kafa ta a shekarar 1964, Hukumar Binciken Albarkatun Ruwa ta Pakistan tana da burin gudanarwa, tsarawa, daidaitawa, da kuma haɓaka bincike a dukkan fannonin albarkatun ruwa. A matsayinta na ƙungiyar bincike ta ƙasa, tana gudanar da aiki tare da haɓaka bincike na aikace-aikace da bincike na asali a fannoni daban-daban na sashin ruwa.[4]

Abubuwan da suka faru kwanan nan

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A watan Maris na shekarar 2013, Ministan Kimiyya da Fasaha Mir Changez Khan Jamali ya sanar da Majalisar Dokoki ta Ƙasa cewa samfuran ruwan ƙarƙashin ƙasa da aka tattara sun nuna cewa kashi 15-18% ne kawai na samfuran aka ɗauka suna da lafiya don sha a yankunan birane da karkara a Pakistan. Ma'aikatar ta ƙirƙiri dakunan gwaje-gwajen ingancin ruwa guda 24 a faɗin Pakistan, ta haɓaka kuma ta sayar da kayan gwajin ingancin ruwa, matatun ruwa, magungunan kashe kwayoyin cuta na ruwa, da gishirin magance ruwan sha, ta gudanar da horo ga ƙwararru 2,660 na kamfanonin samar da ruwa, tare da bincika tsare-tsaren samar da ruwa guda 10,000 daga cikin jimillar tsare-tsare 12,000.[5]

Birtaniya

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Hukumar Sifeton Ruwan Sha

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Hukumar Sifeton Ruwan Sha wani sashi ne na Ma'aikatar Muhalli, Abinci da Al'amuran Karkara da aka kafa don daidaita kamfanonin samar da ruwa na jama'a a Ingila da Wales.[6] Ana iya gudanar da gwajin ruwa a Ingila da Wales a ofishin lafiyar muhalli na ƙaramar hukumar.[7] Duba Hukumar Sifeton Ruwan Sha.

Amurka

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Hukumar Kare Muhalli

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Babban dokokin tarayyar Amurka da ke tsara gwajin ruwa su ne Dokar Amintaccen Ruwan Sha (SDWA) da Dokar Tsabtace Ruwa. Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka (EPA) tana fitar da dokoki a ƙarƙashin kowace doka da ke ƙayyade hanyoyin gwajin bincike. Tsarin Dokoki na shekara-shekara na EPA yana tsara jadawalin takamaiman manufofi kan inganta sa ido kan gwajin ruwa.[8]

Bincikai akan ruwan sha

A ƙarƙashin Dokar Amintaccen Ruwan Sha, ana buƙatar tsarin ruwa na jama'a su riƙa sanya ido akai-akai kan ruwansu da aka tace don gano abubuwan gurbatawa. Dole ne a bincika samfuran ruwa ta amfani da hanyoyin gwaji da EPA ta amince da su, ta hanyar dakunan gwaje-gwaje da EPA ko hukumar jiha ta tabbatar.[9][10]

Dokar Total Coliform ta shekarar 2013 da aka yi wa gyaran fuska da Dokar Total Coliform ta shekarar 1989 su ne kaɗai dokokin rigakafin ƙwayoyin cuta na ruwan sha da suka shafi dukkan tsarin ruwa na jama'a. Dokar da aka yi wa gyaran fuska tana jaddada yawan aiki da lokacin gwajin ƙwayoyin cuta ta tsarin ruwa dangane da yawan jama'ar da ake yi wa hidima, nau'in tsarin, da nau'in tushen ruwa. Hakanan tana sanya iyakar doka akan matakin Escherichia coli. Dole ne a bayyana haɗarin lafiya mai yuwuwa ga EPA ko hukumar jiha da ta dace, kuma ana buƙatar sanarwar jama'a a wasu yanayi.[11]

Hanyoyin auna guba mai tsanani yawanci suna ɗaukar tsakanin awanni 24 zuwa 96 don gano abubuwan gurbatawa a cikin wadatar ruwa.[12]

Binciken gurbataccen ruwa

Dukkanin wuraren da ke Amurka da ke fitar da gurbataccen ruwa zuwa saman ruwa (misali koramu, tabkuna ko ruwan teku) dole ne su sami izini a ƙarƙashin Tsarin Kawar da Gurbacewa na Ƙasa, shirin Dokar Tsabtace Ruwa wanda EPA da hukumomin jiha ke gudanarwa. Wuraren da aka amince da su sun haɗa da masana'untun tace ruwan sha, masana'antun kasuwanci, sansanonin soja da sauran wurare. Yawancin masu izini ana buƙatar su riƙa karɓar samfuran gurbataccen ruwa akai-akai kuma su bincika su don bin ƙa'idodin izini, sannan su kai rahoto ga EPA ko hukumar jiha.[13]

Rijiyoyin kashin kai

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Gwamnatin tarayya ba ta tsara dokoki kan rijiyoyin kashin kai ba. Gabaɗaya, masu rijiyoyin kashin kai ne ke da alhakin gwada rijiyoyinsu.[14] Wasu gwamnatocin jihohi ko na gida suna tsara ginin rijiyoyi kuma suna iya buƙatar gwajin rijiya.[15] Gabaɗaya gwajin rijiya da gwamnatocin gida ke buƙata ya iyakance ga wasu kaɗan daga cikin abubuwan gurbatawa ciki har da kwayoyin cutar coliform da E. Coli kuma wataƙila wasu kalilan daga cikin fitattun gurbatattun gida kamar nitrates ko arsenic. EPA tana buga hanyoyin gwaji don abubuwan gurbatawa da take tsarawa a ƙarƙashin SDWA.[9]

Wallafa hanyoyin gwaji

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Hukumomin gwamnati sun wallafa hanyoyin gwaji da aka duba ta hanyar ƙwararru,[16] ƙungiyoyin bincike masu zaman kansu[17] da ƙungiyoyin ƙa'idodi na duniya[18] don ruwan muhalli, gurbataccen ruwa da ruwan sha. Dole ne a yi amfani da ingantattun hanyoyin da aka wallafa lokacin yin gwaji don nuna yarda da buƙatun tsari.[19][20]

Tsaron cikin gida

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Umurnin Shugaban Ƙasa na Tsaron Cikin Gida na 7 (HSPD-7), wanda Ma'aikatar Tsaron Cikin Gida ta Amurka (DHS) ta bayar a ranar 7 ga Disamba, 2003, ya ayyana EPA a matsayin hukumar da ke da alhakin ayyukan kare muhimman ababen more rayuwa na sashin ruwa. An mayar da HSPD-7 da Umurnin Manufofin Shugaban Ƙasa na 21 (PPD-21) a ranar 12 ga Fabrairu, 2013.[21] Ana gudanar da dukkan ayyukan EPA da ke da shafi tsaron ruwa tare da tattaunawa da DHS.[22] Barazanar da ka iya samun ingancin ruwa sun haɗa da gurɓataccen ruwa da kwayoyin cuta masu kaza kisa, kamar cyanide,[23] da kuma hare-hare na zahiri kamar sakin sinadarai masu guba na iskar gas.[24]

Kalubale da muhawara na dokoki

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Fasahar Hydraulic fracturing
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Dokar Manufofin Makamashi ta shekarar 2005 ta haifar da wata kafa da ke ba kamfanonin hako iskar gas damar kauce wa bayyana sinadaran da ake amfani da su a ayyukan fasa duwatsu (fracturing) wanda yawanci dokokin tsabtace ruwa na tarayya ke buƙata.[25] An fi sanin wannan kafa da "kafar Halliburton" saboda an ruwaito cewa Dick Cheney, tsohon babban jami'in gudanarwa na Halliburton, shi ne ya taimaka wajen zartar da ita.[26] Kodayake Dokar Amintaccen Ruwan Sha ta cire hydraulic fracturing daga dokokin Kula da Allurar Ƙarƙashin Ƙasa, yin amfani da man dizal yayin hydraulic fracturing har yanzu ana tsara shi. Hukumomin mai da iskar gas na jihohi na iya fitar da ƙarin dokoki don hydraulic fracturing. Jihohi ko EPA suna da iko a ƙarƙashin Dokar Tsabtace Ruwa don tsara fitar da ruwan da aka samar daga ayyukan hydraulic fracturing.[27]

A watan Disamba na shekarar 2011, jami'an muhalli na tarayya sun danganta gurbacewar ruwan ƙarƙashin ƙasa da fasahar hydraulic fracturing a kimiyance a karon farko a tsakiyar Wyoming. EPA ta bayyana cewa wadatar ruwan tana ɗauke da aƙalla sinadarai 10 da aka sani ana amfani da su a cikin ruwan fracking. Abubuwan da aka gano a cikin rahoton sun saba wa hujjojin masana'antar hako mai kan amincin tsarin fasa duwatsun, kamar matsin lamba na ruwa wanda ke tura ruwa ƙasa ta dabi'a maimakon sama. Haka kuma EPA ta yi nuni da cewa gurbacewar da aka samu daga barikin da aka watsar na mai da iskar gas guda 33 ne ke da alhakin wani mataki na gurbacewar ruwan ƙarƙashin ƙasa a kewayen.[28]

A watan Fabrairu na shekarar 2013, jihar Illinois ta gabatar da Dokar Tsarin Hydraulic Fracturing na Illinois, H.B. 2615, wanda ke sanya tsauraran iko ga kamfanonin fasa duwatsu, kamar buƙatun bayyana sinadarai da buƙatun gwajin ruwa. Kudirin ya haɗa da gwajin asali da na lokaci-lokaci na bayan-frack na ruwan da ke iya shafar lamarin, kamar ruwan saman ƙasa da albarkatun ruwan ƙarƙashin ƙasa kusa da rijiyoyin fracturing, don gano gurbacewar da ke da alaƙa da hydraulic fracturing. Za a rufe rijiyoyin fracturing idan aka saki ruwan fracturing a wajen duwatsun shale da ake fasa mawa.[29]

Magunguna da kayayan kula da kai
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Ana samun matakan magunguna da kayayyakin kula da kai da za a iya gano su, a cikin sassan triliyan guda, a yawancin tsarin ruwan sha na jama'a a Amurka saboda yawancin masana'untun gwajin ruwa ba su da fasahar cire waɗannan sinadarai daga danyen ruwa. Yanzu akwai ƙarin damuwa game da yadda waɗannan sinadarai ke lalacewa da kuma yin martani a cikin muhalli, lokacin aikin jiyya, a cikin jikinmu, da kuma tsawon lokacin da ake ɗauka ana fallasa ga gurbatattun abubuwa da yawa a ƙananan matakai. Daga cikin sinadarai sama da 80,000 da aka yi wa rajista da EPA, dokokin ruwan sha na tarayya na Amurka sun ba da umarnin gwajin sinadarai 83 kawai, wanda ke buƙatar ƙarin sanya ido kan magunguna akan kasancewar da kuma taruwar sinadarai a koramu, rafuka, da taceccen ruwan famfo. Kamar yadda dokokin gurbataccen ruwa na gargajiya da tsarin jiyya ke nufan ƙwayoyin cuta da abubuwan gina jiki, babu ƙa'idodin tarayya na magunguna a cikin ruwan sha ko gurbataccen ruwa.[30]

Abubuwan da suka faru kwanan nan

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Samfuri:Update A watan Mayu na shekarar 2012, Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta fitar da sabon jerin gurbatattun abubuwa, wanda aka sani da ƙa'idar sa ido kan gurbatattun abubuwa da ba a tsara su ba ta 3 (UCMR3), wanda zai kasance wani ɓangare na gwajin tsarin ruwa na birni tun daga wannan shekarar har zuwa 2015. Gwajin UCMR3 zai taimaka wa masu gudanar da tsarin ruwa na birni don auna faruwa da bayyanar matakan gurbacewa da ka iya jefa lafiyar ɗan adam cikin haɗari. Dakunan Gwaje-gwaje na Tsaftar Muhalli na Jiha a Jami'ar Iowa shi ne kaɗai dakin gwaje-gwajen lafiyar jama'a na muhalli na jiha da aka ba da tabbaci da amincewa don gwada dukkan sinadarai 28 gurbatattu a cikin sabon jerin.[31]

A watan Maris na shekarar 2013, Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta haɓaka sabon gwajin ingancin ruwa mai sauri wanda ke ba da ingantaccen sakamako a rana guda na matakan gurbacewa, wanda ke nuna gagarumin ci gaba daga gwaje-gwajen yanzu da ke buƙatar aƙalla awanni 24 don samun sakamako. Sabon gwajin zai taimaka wa hukumomi sanin ko rairayin bakin teku (beaches) suna da lafiya don yin ninkaya don kiyaye jama'a daga kamuwa da rashin lafiya kuma zai iya taimakawa hana rufe rairayin bakin teku._

Kungiyoyin Duniya

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Ƙungiyar Kula da Harkokin Ruwa ta Duniya, wadda aka fi sani da Ƙungiyar Tattaunawa ta Harkokin Ruwa ta Ƙasashen Duniya har zuwa shekarar 1982,[32] an kafa ta a Geneva a shekarar 1948,[33] kuma ta fara aiki bayan shekaru goma, inda ta yi taronta na farko a shekarar 1959.[Ana bukatan hujja] Duba Ƙungiyar Kula da Harkokin Ruwa ta Duniya.

Ƙungiyar Kula da Harkokin Ruwa ta Duniya ta kasance a sahun gaba wajen jagorantar al’ummar duniya wajen magance matsalar yada nau’o’in halittu daga ruwa ta hanyar jigilar kaya. A ranar 13 ga Fabrairu 2004, an amince da Yarjejeniyar Kula da Sarrafa Ruwa da Ƙazantar Jiragen Ruwa a taron diflomasiyya da aka gudanar a hedikwatar Ƙungiyar Kula da Harkokin Ruwa ta Duniya a Landan. Bisa ga yarjejeniyar, dukkan jiragen ruwa dole ne su aiwatar da tsarin kula da ruwa da ƙazanta. Dukkan jiragen ruwa za su riƙa ɗaukar Littafin Rikodin Ruwa kuma za su kasance da wajibcin aiwatar da tsarin kula da ruwa bisa ƙa’ida. Ƙasashen da suka rattaba hannu kan yarjejeniyar suna da zaɓi na ɗaukar ƙarin matakai bisa ƙa’idodi da Ƙungiyar Kula da Harkokin Ruwa ta Duniya ta tsara. Kula da ruwa yana ƙarƙashin ƙa’idar musayar ruwa da ƙa’idar ingancin ruwa. Jiragen da ke yin musayar ruwa dole ne su yi hakan da ingancin kashi 95 cikin 100 na musayar ruwa, kuma jiragen da ke amfani da tsarin kula da ruwa (BWMS) dole ne su cika ƙa’idar inganci bisa adadin halittu da aka amince da su a kowace raka’a na ruwa. Yarjejeniyar za ta fara aiki bayan watanni 12 da ƙasashe 30 suka rattaba hannu, waɗanda ke wakiltar kashi 35 cikin 100 na tonon jigilar kaya na duniya.[34] Duba Fitar Ruwa da Muhalli.

Yakin-yakin na gwajin ruwa

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Kalubalen Ruwa na EarthEcho

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Kalubalen Ruwa na EarthEcho (EarthEcho Water Challenge) shiri ne na ilimi da wayar da kan jama'a na duniya wanda ke haifar da sanarwa da sa hannun jama'a wajen kiyaye albarkatun ruwa a duniya ta hanyar sanya 'yan ƙasa gudanar da gwajin ruwa na sassan ruwan gida. Masu halarta suna koyon yadda ake gudanar da sauƙaƙan gwaje-gwajen ingancin ruwa, da bincika alamomin lafiyar ruwa na yau da kullun, musamman narkar da iskar oxygen (dissolved oxygen), pH, yanayin zafi (temperature), da gurbacewa (turbidity). Da fari an kira shirin da "Ranar Sa Ido Kan Ruwa ta Duniya" (World Water Monitoring Day) kuma daga baya "Kalubalen Sa Ido Kan Ruwa ta Duniya" (World Water Monitoring Challenge), kuma an kafa shi ne a shekarar 2003. EarthEcho International tana ƙarfafa masu halarta su gudanar da ayyukansu na sa ido a matsayin ɓangare na "Kalubalen Ruwa na EarthEcho" a kowane lokaci tsakanin Maris 22 (Ranar Ruwa ta Duniya) da Disamba na kowace shekara.[35][36]

Kasuwar gwajin ruwa

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Girman kasuwa da tsarinta

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Ya zuwa shekarar 2009, kasuwar gwajin ruwa ta duniya, wacce ta haɗa da rukunonin cikin gida, ƙananan masana'antu da manyan dakunan gwaje-gwaje, tana da darajar kusan dalar Amurka biliyan 3.6. Kasuwar duniya don kayan aikin gwaji na matakin ƙasa (low-end) kusan dala miliyan 300–400 ce. Kasuwar duniya don na'urorin sa ido na kan layi (in-line monitors) kusan dala miliyan 100–130 ce.[37]

Kayayyakin da ake samarwa

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Muhimman kayayyaki sun haɗa da tsarin bincike (analytical systems), kayan aiki (instrumentation), da sinadarai (reagents) don binciken inganci da amincin ruwa.[38] Sinadaran (reagents) sune mahaɗan gwajin sinadarai waɗanda ke gano kasancewar chlorine, pH, alkalinity, gurbacewa (turbidity) da sauran ma'aunai.

Kasuwar kayan aikin ta ƙunshi kayan aikin gwajin fili na matakin ƙasa (low-end) da ake amfani da su a wurin, na'urorin sa ido na kan layi (in-line monitors), da manyan kayan aikin dakunan gwaje-gwaje na matakin sama (high-end).[37] Manyan kayan aikin lab na matakin sama sune na'urorin Mass Spectrometry waɗanda ke gudanar da bincike na halitta (organic analysis), ta amfani da Gas Chromatography da Liquid Chromatography, ko binciken karafa (metals analysis), ta amfani da Inductively Coupled Plasma.[1]

Sabbin ci gaba

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Wasu hanyoyin da ya kamata a sanya ido kansu sun haɗa da dabarun toshewa-da-kunna (plug-and-play) na na'urori masu auna firikwensin dijital (digital sensor) da na'urorin auna narkar da iskar oxygen masu haske (luminescent dissolved oxygen meters) da ke maye gurbin firikwensin (sensors).[39]

Tsarin kasuwanci na "Aske da Ruwan Aske"

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Kasuwar gwajin ruwa kusan kashi biyu cikin uku kayan aiki ne kuma kashi ɗaya cikin uku kayan amfani ne (consumables). Ana amfani da sinadarai (reagents) tare da kowane gwaji kuma suna samar da kuɗaɗen shiga akai-akai (recurring revenue) ga kamfanoni. Yarjejeniyar kula da kayayyaki bayan sayarwa, horar da masu aiki da musanya sassan kayan aiki suna taimakawa wajen tabbatar da an haɓaka albarkatun yadda ya kamata.[39] Jagoran kasuwa mai kimanin kashi 21% na rabon kasuwa, Danaher, yana iya samun rabe-raben EBIT (ribar da aka samu kafin cire ruwa da haraji) a tsakanin matakin sama-na-goma zuwa ƙasa da kashi 20% akan kayan aikin gwaji, amma yana iya samun rabe-raben kashi 40%+ akan sinadaran gwajin ruwa.[40] Duba Freebie marketing.

Rarraba kayayyaki

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Kamfanoni sun fi karkata ga yin amfani da tsarin "kai-tsaye-ga-mai-amfani" (direct-to-end-user) don yawancin kayayyaki, amma kuma suna iya ƙoƙarin sayar da kayan aiki na matakin ƙasa ta Intanet don rage farashin rarrabawa.[39]

Sanya farashi

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Sanya farashi ya dogara ne akan amfani da nau'in samfur. Kayan aiki sun fito ne daga ƙasa kaɗan kamar dala 10 zuwa dubunnan daloli.[39]

Masu samar da kaya

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Kayan aikin gwaji na matakin ƙasa (low-end) ya mamaye ne ta hannun 'yan kaɗan daga cikin manyan masu samar da kaya, musamman Lovibond da Merck na Jamus, DelAgua & ITS Europe Water Testing na Birtaniya waɗanda ke aiki a duniya, da kuma LaMotte da ke Amurka. Manyan masana'antun kayan aikin kan layi (in-line equipment) sun haɗa da Siemens da Hach na Danaher. Thermo Scientific da Waters sune manyan masu kera kayan aikin gwaji na matakin sama (high-end).[37]

Kasuwannin ƙarshe

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Kasuwannin ƙarshe sun haɗa da masana'antun ruwa na birni, masu amfani da masana'antu, kamar abubuwan sha da kayan lantarki, da hukumomin muhalli, kamar Hukumar Binciken Jiyoloji ta Amurka (United States Geological Survey).[39]

Wuraren gwajin ruwa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Akwai manyan nau'ikan dakunan gwaje-gwaje guda biyu: na kasuwanci da na cikin gida.

Dakunan gwaje-gwaje na cikin gida

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Dakunan gwaje-gwaje na cikin gida yawanci suna nan a wuraren tace ruwa na birni da wuraren tace gurbataccen ruwa, masana'antun giya da masana'antun kera magunguna. Suna ɗaukar kusan rabin duk gwaje-gwajen da ake yi a duk shekara.[1]

Dakunan gwaje-gwaje na kasuwanci

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Yawancin dakunan gwaje-gwaje na kasuwanci kamfanoni ne na wuri guda waɗanda ke ba da sabis ga cibiyoyi kawai a yankin yanki na zahiri. Adadin ma'aikata ga kowane dakin gwaje-gwaje yawanci bai kai mutane biyar ba, kuma kuɗaɗen shiga ba su kai dala miliyan 1 ba. Waɗannan dakunan gwaje-gwaje suna ɗaukar kashi ɗaya cikin huɗu na dukkan gwaje-gwaje. Akwai manyan rukunonin dakunan gwaje-gwaje da yawa, kamar Inspicio da ke Birtaniya da ALS da ke Ostiraliya, waɗanda ke ɗaukar wani kashi ɗaya cikin huɗu na dukkan gwaje-gwaje.[1]

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. 1 2 3 4 "Water testing – pass or fail?". Global Water Intelligence. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
  2. ↑ "MEP Mission". Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  3. ↑ Gong, Jing (7 June 2012). "What's coming out of China's taps?". China Dialogue. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  4. ↑ "About PCRWR". PCRWR. Archived from the original on 16 April 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
  5. ↑ "24 water quality testing laboratories set up in country: NA told". Business Recorder. 13 March 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
  6. ↑ "Drinking Water Inspectorate Home Page". Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  7. ↑ "Drinking water quality". DWI. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  8. ↑ "Regulatory Agendas and Regulatory Plans". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2025-08-11.
  9. 1 2 "Learn about Drinking Water Analytical Methods". EPA. 2025-06-30.
  10. ↑ "Learn About Laboratory Certification for Drinking Water". EPA. 2025-07-23.
  11. ↑ "Revised Total Coliform And Total Coliform Rule". Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems. EPA. 2025-02-19.
  12. ↑ "Performance Verification Testing" (PDF). EPA. 6 August 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-06.
  13. ↑ "NPDES Permit Basics". National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. EPA. 2025-06-03.
  14. ↑ "Private Drinking Water Wells". EPA. 2025-08-11.
  15. ↑ "State Resources". Westerville, OH: National Groundwater Association. Retrieved 2025-09-09.
  16. ↑ "Clean Water Act Analytical Methods". EPA. 2025-09-09.
  17. ↑ Lipps, William C.; Braun-Howland, Ellen Burton; Baxter, Terry E., eds. (2022). Standard Methods For the Examination of Water and Wastewater (24 ed.). American Public Health Association. ISBN 978-0875532998. Also available on CD-ROM and online by subscription.
  18. ↑ "ISO Standards 13.060: Water quality". International Organization for Standardization. Retrieved 2010-03-28. Includes toxicity, biodegradability, protection against pollution, related installations and equipment. Geneva, Switzerland.
  19. ↑ "Legal Authority for CWA Analytical Methods". EPA. 2025-09-02.
  20. ↑ "Approved CWA Test Methods: Questions and Answers". EPA. 2024-10-04.
  21. ↑ "Presidential Policy Directive -- Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience". The White House. 2013-02-12. Press release. Archived from the original on 2017-01-19. Retrieved 2026-06-24.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
  22. ↑ "Water and Wastewater Systems Sector Cybersecurity". EPA. 2025-06-17.
  23. ↑ "Water Testing and Treatment Reflect the Times". Research & Development. Advantage Business Media. 2004-05-18. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
  24. ↑ "Water Sector: Critical Infrastructure". US DHS. Archived from the original on 16 March 2013. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  25. ↑ United States. Energy Policy Act of 2005, Samfuri:USPL, approved 2005-08-08. Amended Safe Drinking Water Act § 1421(d). See Samfuri:USC.
  26. ↑ Dorner, Joshua. "Cheney's Culture of Deregulation and Corruption". Center for American Progress. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  27. ↑ "Regulation of Hydraulic Fracturing Under the Safe Drinking Water Act". EPA. 15 January 2013. Archived from the original on September 6, 2010. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  28. ↑ Lustgarten, Abrahm (8 December 2011). "Feds Link Water Contamination to Fracking for the First Time". Pro Publica. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  29. ↑ "HB2615". Illinois General Assembly. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  30. ↑ McNabb, John. "Testimony to Oversight Hearing" (PDF). Clean Water Action. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 December 2010. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  31. ↑ Blake, Pat (8 March 2013). "What's in your water?". Iowa Now. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa.
  32. ↑ "About IMO". IMO. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  33. ↑ Hoffman, Michael L (4 March 1948). "Ship Organization Nears Final Form; U.N. Maritime Body Expected to Have 3 Principal Organs – Panama in Opposition". The New York Times. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  34. ↑ "Ballast Water Management". Archived from the original|archive-url= requires |url= (help) on 31 October 2013. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  35. ↑ "EarthEcho Water Challenge". Washington, D.C.: EarthEcho International. Retrieved 2018-04-08.
  36. ↑ Manion, Sean (26 May 2021). "Monitoring Water for pH". ketos.co. Sean Manion.
  37. 1 2 3 "Something in the water". Global Water Intelligence. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
  38. ↑ Dray, Deane M. "Investing In The Global Water Sector" (PDF). Citi. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  39. 1 2 3 4 5 "Water Sector Primer" (PDF). Goldman Sachs. Retrieved 21 March 2013.[permanent dead link]
  40. ↑ Geraghty, Michael. "Global Themes Strategy" (PDF). Citi. Retrieved 21 March 2013.[permanent dead link]
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