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Fara

Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
ImageFara
organisms known by a particular common name (en) Fassara
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Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare naInsecta (mul) Fassara
Taxon known by this common name (en) FassaraCaelifera (mul) Fassara, Tridactyloidea (mul) Fassara da Tettigonioidea (mul) Fassara
Diel cycle (en) Fassaradiurnality (en) Fassara

Grasshoppers rukuni ne na kwari na cikin suborder Caelifera . Suna daga cikin abubuwan da za su iya zama mafi tsufa masu rai na ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin cuta masu cin ganyayyaki, tun daga farkon Triassic, kimanin shekaru miliyan 250 da suka gabata.

Grasshoppers yawanci kwari ne masu zama a ƙasa tare da kafafu masu ƙarfi waɗanda ke ba su damar tserewa daga barazanar ta hanyar tsalle da ƙarfi. Ƙafafunsu na gaba sun fi guntu kuma ana amfani da su don kama abinci. A matsayin kwari na hemimetabolous, ba sa fuskantar cikakkiyar metamorphosis; suna fitowa daga kwai zuwa cikin nymph ko "hopper" wanda ke fuskantar sauye-sauye biyar, ya zama mafi kama da kwari mai girma a kowane mataki na ci gaba.[1] Tsuntsu yana ji ta hanyar kwayar cutar wanda za'a iya samunsa a ɓangaren farko na ciki da ke haɗe da kirji; yayin da ma'anar hangen nesa ke cikin idanu masu haɗari, ana ganin canji a cikin ƙarfin haske a cikin idanu (ocelli). A yawan jama'a da kuma wasu yanayin muhalli, wasu nau'in tsutsa na iya canza launi da halayyar kuma su samar da ɗakunan. A karkashin wadannan yanayi, an san su da kwari.

Grasshoppers Masu cin shuke-shuke ne, tare da wasu nau'o'in a wasu lokuta suna zama manyan cututtukan hatsi, kayan lambu da makiyaya, musamman lokacin da suka taru a cikin miliyoyin a matsayin tsutsa kuma suka lalata amfanin gona a wurare masu faɗi. Suna kare kansu daga masu cin nama ta hanyar camouflage; lokacin da aka gano su, yawancin jinsuna suna ƙoƙari su firgita mai cin nama tare da fuka-fuki mai launi mai haske yayin da suke tsallewa da kuma kaddamar da kansu cikin iska, yawanci suna tashi don ɗan gajeren nesa kawai. Sauran nau'o'in kamar rainbow grasshopper suna da launi mai gargadi wanda ke hana masu cin nama. Grasshoppers suna shafar parasites da cututtuka daban-daban, kuma yawancin halittu masu cin nama suna cin abinci a kan nymphs da manya. Kwayoyin suna fuskantar hari daga parasitoids da predators. Grasshoppers kwari ne na rana, ma'ana suna da ƙwazo sosai a lokacin rana.

Grasshoppers suna da dangantaka mai tsawo da mutane. Rashin tsutsa na iya haifar da mummunar sakamako kuma ya haifar da yunwa, tun lokacin da aka yi hakan tun zamanin Littafi Mai-Tsarki.[2] Ko da a cikin ƙananan lambobi, kwari na iya zama manyan kwari. Ana amfani da su azaman abinci a ƙasashe kamar Mexico da Indonesia. Suna nunawa a cikin fasaha, alama da wallafe-wallafen. Nazarin nau'in tsutsa ana kiransa acridology .

Halitta

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Grasshoppers na cikin suborder Caelifera . Kodayake an yi amfani da "tsuntsu" a matsayin sunan gama gari ga ƙananan tsari gabaɗaya, [3] [4] [5] tushen zamani sun ƙuntata shi ga iyalai masu "ci gaba". Ana iya sanya su a cikin infraorder Acrididea kuma ana kiransu "tsuntsaye masu ƙaho" a cikin tsofaffin matani don rarrabe su daga kalmar da ba ta da amfani "tsuntsu masu ƙaho masu tsawo" (yanzu bush-crickets ko katydids) tare da antennae masu tsawo.[6] phylogeny na Caelifera, wanda ya dogara da mitochondrial ribosomal RNA na kashi talatin da biyu a cikin shida daga cikin manyan iyalai bakwai, an nuna shi azaman cladogram. Ensifera, Caelifera, da duk manyan iyalai na tsutsa ban da "Pamphagoidea" sun bayyana a matsayin monophyletic.[7][8]Samfuri:Clade

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Tsuntsaye na burbushin halittu a Gidan Tarihi na Royal Ontario

A cikin yanayin juyin halitta, rabuwa tsakanin Caelifera da Ensifera ba kwanan nan ba ne fiye da iyakar Permo-Triassic; kwari na farko da tabbas Caeliferans ne a cikin iyalan Locustopseidae da Locustavidae daga farkon Triassic, kimanin shekaru miliyan 250 da suka gabata. Kungiyar ta bambanta a lokacin Triassic kuma sun kasance masu cin shuke-shuke masu mahimmanci daga wannan lokacin zuwa yanzu. Iyalai na farko na zamani kamar Eumastacidae, Tetrigidae da Tridactylidae sun bayyana a cikin Cretaceous, kodayake wasu kwari da zasu iya kasancewa cikin biyu na ƙarshe na waɗannan kungiyoyi ana samun su a farkon Jurassic.[9] Rarrabawar morphological yana da wahala saboda yawancin nau'ikan sun haɗu zuwa ga nau'ikan mazaunin gama gari; masu ilimin lissafi na baya-bayan nan sun mai da hankali kan al'amuran ciki, musamman na namiji. Wannan bayanin ba ya samuwa daga samfurori na burbushin halittu, kuma an kafa tsarin lissafin palaeontological musamman a kan venation na hindfings.[10]

Caelifera ya haɗa da wasu nau'o'i 2,400 masu inganci da kimanin nau'o-in 11,000 da aka sani. Yawancin nau'o'in da ba a bayyana su ba tabbas sun wanzu, musamman a cikin gandun daji masu zafi. Caelifera suna da rarrabawar wurare masu zafi tare da ƙananan nau'o'in da aka sani daga yankuna masu matsakaici, amma yawancin manyan iyalai suna da wakilai a duk duniya. Kusan suna cin ganyayyaki ne kawai kuma tabbas sune mafi tsufa mai rai na kwari masu cin ganyayyi.[10]

Mafi yawan dangin da suka fi yawa shine Acridoidea, tare da kimanin nau'in 8,000. Manyan iyalai biyu a cikin wannan sune Acrididae (tsuntsaye da tsutsa) tare da rarraba a duniya, da Romaleidae (tsutsa), wanda aka samo asali a Sabon Duniya. Ommexechidae da Tristiridae sune Kudancin Amurka, kuma Lentulidae, Lithidiidae da Pamphagidae galibi Afirka ne. Pauliniids suna tafiya da dare kuma suna iya yin iyo ko tsalle a kan ruwa, kuma Lentulids ba su da fuka-fuki. Pneumoridae 'yan asalin Afirka ne, musamman kudancin Afirka, kuma an rarrabe su da ciki mai kumbura na maza.[11]

Halaye

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Tsuntsaye biyu masu banbanci, tare da ƙayoyi tare da ƙashin ƙafar baya

Grasshoppers suna da tsarin jikin kwari na yau da kullun na kai, kirji, da ciki. Ana riƙe kai tsaye a kusurwa zuwa jiki, tare da baki a kasa. Shugaban yana ɗauke da manyan idanu guda biyu waɗanda ke ba da hangen nesa, idanu uku masu sauƙi waɗanda zasu iya gano haske da duhu, da kuma nau'i biyu masu kama da zaren waɗanda ke da hankali ga taɓawa da ƙanshi. Suna da kafafu biyu masu karfi na baya wanda ke motsa su cikin iska don tserewa daga masu cin nama. Ana canza bangarorin baki don cinyewa kuma akwai palps guda biyu a gaban jaw.[12]

Zuciya da ciki suna da sashi kuma suna da cuticle mai tsayi wanda ya ƙunshi faranti masu yawa waɗanda suka haɗa da Chitin. Yankunan kirji guda uku da aka haɗu suna ɗauke da nau'i-nau'i uku na kafafu da nau'in fuka-fuki biyu. Fuka-fukan da ke gaba, waɗanda aka sani da tegmina, suna da ƙanƙanta kuma suna da fata yayin da fuka-fukai na baya suna da girma kuma suna da membranous, jijiyoyin suna ba da ƙarfi. Ana dakatar da kafafu da yatsunsu don riƙewa. Ƙafar baya tana da ƙarfi sosai. Ƙafafun waɗannan nau'o'in suna da ƙarfi sosai har za su iya tsallewa nesa mai tsawo; suna kuma amfani da wannan don tserewa daga haɗari.[13] Female yana da ƙarfi kuma yana da tuddai da yawa inda wurare daban-daban suka haɗu kuma tuddai na ciki suna ɗauke da igiyoyi masu ƙarfi a wasu nau'o'in. Yankin baya na tibia yana ɗauke da jere biyu na spines kuma akwai nau'i biyu na spurs a kusa da ƙarshen sa. Cikin kirji yana da tsokoki waɗanda ke sarrafa fuka-fuki da kafafu.[12]

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Ensifera, kamar wannan babban kore bush-cricket Tettigonia viridissima, yayi kama da tsutsa amma suna da fiye da sassan 20 a cikin antennae da kuma nau'ikan ovipositors daban-daban.

Abun ciki yana da sassa goma sha ɗaya, na farko daga cikinsu an haɗa shi da kirji kuma yana ƙunshe da kwayar murya da tsarin ji. Sashe biyu zuwa takwas suna da siffar zobe kuma an haɗa su da membranes masu sassauƙa. Sashe tara zuwa goma sha ɗaya an rage su a girman; sashe tara yana ɗauke da nau'i biyu na cerci kuma sashe goma da goma sha ɗaya suna da gabobin haihuwa. Tsuntsaye mata yawanci sun fi maza girma, tare da gajeren ovipositors.[12] Sunan suborder "Caelifera" ya fito ne daga Latin kuma yana nufin chisel-bearing, yana nufin siffar ovipositor.

Kwayoyin jin tururuwa suna kan ciki, maimakon a kan kansa. Wadannan gabobin sun kunshi membranes guda biyu, kowannensu an sanya shi a kowane bangare na ɓangaren ciki na farko kuma an rufe shi a ƙarƙashin fuka-fuki. An san su da gabobin tympanal, waɗannan kunne masu sauƙi suna girgiza don amsawa ga raƙuman sauti, suna ba tsutsa damar jin waƙoƙin wasu tsutsa.[13]

Wadannan nau'o'in da ke haifar da sautin ji da sauƙi yawanci suna yin hakan ta hanyar shafa jere na pegs a kan ƙafafun baya a kan gefen fuka-fukan da ke gaba; wannan hali ana kiransa stridulation. Stridulation galibi maza ne ke samar da shi don jawo hankalin mata, kodayake a wasu nau'o'in mata ma suna yin sauti.[14] Sauran, kamar Crackling Forest Grasshopper, suna samar da dannawa na musamman yayin tashi; wannan hali ana kiransa crepitation.

Grasshoppers na iya rikicewa da crickets, amma sun bambanta a fannoni da yawa; waɗannan sun haɗa da yawan sassan a cikin antennae da tsarin ovipositor, da kuma wurin da ake samar da sauti. Ensiferans suna da antennae wanda zai iya zama ya fi tsayi fiye da jiki kuma suna da aƙalla ɓangarori 20-24, yayin da Caeliferans suna le ƙananan ɓangarori a cikin gajeren antennae.[14]

Ilimin halittu

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Tsarin bangarorin baki

Yawancin tsutsa suna polyphagous, suna cin ganyayyaki daga tushen shuke-shuke da yawa misali ganyen shuke-huke, [15] amma wasu suna cin komai kuma suna cin nama da nama. Suna kuma son cin wasu kwari.[16] Gabaɗaya, abin da suka fi so shi ne ciyawa, gami da hatsi da yawa da aka shuka a matsayin amfanin gona.[17] Tsarin narkewa yana da kyau ga kwari, tare da Malpighian tubules da ke fitowa cikin tsakiyar hanji. Carbohydrates suna narkewa galibi a cikin amfanin gona, yayin da sunadarai ke narkewa a cikin ceca na tsakiyar hanji. Saliva yana da yawa amma galibi ba shi da enzymes, yana taimakawa wajen motsa abinci da ɓoyayyun Malpighian tare da hanji. Wasu tsutsa suna da cellulase, wanda ta hanyar taushiyar ganuwar sel na shuka yana sa abubuwan da ke cikin sel na shuke-shuke su sami damar samun dama ga wasu enzymes masu narkewa. Grasshoppers na iya zama cannibalistic lokacin da suke yawan mutane.[18][19][20]

Jiki na ji

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Bayyanar gaba na Tsuntsu na Masar (Anacridium aegyptium) yana nuna idanu masu yawa, ƙananan ocelli da setae da yawa

Grasshoppers suna da tsarin jijiyoyin kwari na yau da kullun, kuma suna da babban tsarin ɓangarorin ji na waje. A gefen kai akwai manyan idanu guda biyu waɗanda ke ba da cikakken hangen nesa kuma suna iya gano motsi, siffar, launi da nesa. Har ila yau, akwai idanu masu sauƙi guda uku (ocelli) a goshi wanda zai iya gano ƙarfin haske, antennae guda biyu dauke da masu karɓar ƙanshi (ƙanshi) da taɓawa, da kuma bakunan da ke dauke da masu ɗaukar dandano (mai ɗanɗano). A ƙarshen gaba na ciki akwai ɓangarorin tympanal guda biyu don karɓar sauti. Akwai gashi masu kyau da yawa (setae) da ke rufe dukkan jiki waɗanda ke aiki a matsayin masu karɓar kayan aiki (masu auna sigina da iska), kuma waɗannan sun fi yawa a kan antennae, palps (wani ɓangare na baki), da kuma a kan cerci a ƙarshen ciki.[21] Akwai masu karɓa na musamman (campaniform sensillae) da aka saka a cikin cuticle na kafafu waɗanda ke jin matsin lamba da rikicewar cuticle.[22]Akwai ɓangarorin ji na ciki na "chordotonal" waɗanda aka ƙware don gano matsayi da motsi game da haɗin gwiwar exoskeleton. Masu karɓa suna isar da bayanai ga tsarin juyayi na tsakiya ta hanyar neurons na ji, kuma mafi yawan waɗannan suna da jikin tantanin halitta da ke kusa da shafin mai karɓa da kansa.[21]

Circulation da numfashi

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Kamar sauran kwari, tsutsa suna da tsarin yaduwar jini kuma ramin jikinsu yana cike da haemolymph. Tsarin zuciya a saman ciki yana yin amfani da ruwa zuwa kai daga inda yake wucewa cikin kyallen takarda da gabobin a kan hanyar komawa cikin ciki. Wannan tsarin yana rarraba abubuwan gina jiki a ko'ina cikin jiki kuma yana ɗauke da sharar gida don a fitar da shi cikin hanji. Sauran ayyuka na haemolymph sun haɗa da warkar da rauni, canja wurin zafi da samar da matsin lamba na hydrostatic, amma tsarin zagayawa ba ya cikin musayar gas.[23] Ana yin numfashi ta amfani da tracheae, bututun da ke cike da iska, wanda ke buɗewa a saman kirji da ciki ta hanyar nau'i-nau'i na valved spiracles. Manyan kwari na iya buƙatar iska da jiki ta hanyar buɗe wasu spiracles yayin da wasu suka kasance a rufe, ta amfani da tsokoki na ciki don fadadawa da kwantar da jiki da kuma famfo iska ta hanyar tsarin.[24]

Tsalwa

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Grasshoppers suna adana makamashi don tsalle, suna shawo kan iyakokin tsoka wanda ba zai iya yin kwangila da ƙarfi da sauri a lokaci guda ba. Wakilan tsari suna da zane-zane.

Grasshoppers suna tsalle ta hanyar miƙa manyan ƙafafunsu na baya da turawa kan tushe (ƙasa, reshe, tsintsiya na ciyawa ko duk abin da suke tsaye a kai); ƙarfin amsawa yana tura su cikin iska.[25] Babban tsutsa, kamar fari, na iya tsalle game da mita (20 tsayin jiki) ba tare da amfani da fuka-fukansa ba; hanzarin ya kai kusan 20 g.[26] 

Suna tsalle saboda dalilai da yawa: don tserewa daga mai farauta, don kaddamar da kansu cikin jirgin, ko kuma kawai don motsawa daga wuri zuwa wuri. Don tsalle-tsalle na tserewa musamman akwai matsin lamba mai karfi don kara saurin tashi, tunda wannan yana ƙayyade kewayon. Wannan yana nufin cewa dole ne kafafu su tura ƙasa tare da ƙarfi mai ƙarfi da saurin motsi. Babban abu na tsoka shine cewa ba zai iya yin kwangila tare da karfi mai ƙarfi da sauri a lokaci guda ba. Grasshoppers sun shawo kan wannan ta hanyar amfani da na'urar catapult don kara ƙarfin inji da tsokoki suka samar.[27]

RTsalle tsari ne na matakai uku.[28] Na farko, tsutsa yana karkatar da ƙananan ɓangaren kafa (tibia) a kan ɓangaren sama (femur) ta hanyar kunna tsokoki na tsokoki (ƙafafun baya na tsutsa a saman hoto suna cikin wannan matsayi na shiri). Na biyu, akwai lokacin hadin gwiwa wanda karfi ke tarawa a cikin babban, pennate extensor tibiae muscle, amma tibia yana kiyayewa ta hanyar raguwa a lokaci guda na flexor tibiae tsoka. Tsokoki mai tsawo yana da ƙarfi sosai fiye da tsokoki mai laushi, amma na ƙarshe yana taimakawa ta ƙwarewa a cikin haɗin gwiwa, yana ba shi babbar fa'idar inji mai tasiri akan na farko lokacin da ƙashin ya cika.[29] Haɗin gwiwa na iya ɗaukar rabin dakika, kuma a wannan lokacin tsokoki mai tsawo yana taƙaitawa kuma yana adana ƙarfin ƙarfin ƙarfi ta hanyar karkatar da tsarin cuticular mai ƙarfi a cikin kafa.[30] Ƙuntatawar tsoka mai tsawo yana da jinkiri sosai (kusan isometric), yana ba shi damar haɓaka ƙarfi mai ƙarfi (har zuwa 14 N a cikin tsutsa na hamada), amma saboda yana da jinkirin, ana buƙatar ƙaramin ƙarfi kawai.  Mataki na uku na tsalle shine shakatawa na tsokoki, yana sakin tibia daga matsayi mai laushi. Saurin tsawo na tibial na gaba yana motsawa galibi ta hanyar sassaucin tsarin sassauci, maimakon ta hanyar kara gajarta tsoka mai tsawo. Ta wannan hanyar cuticle mai tsayi yana aiki kamar sassauci na catapult, ko baka na baka da kibiyoyi. Ana sanya makamashi a cikin shagon a ƙaramin iko ta hanyar raguwar tsoka mai ƙarfi kuma ana dawo da shi daga shagon a babban iko ta hanyar hanzarin shakatawa na tsarin inji.

Rashin ƙarfi

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Page Module:Side box/styles.css has no content.  Tsuntsaye maza suna ciyar da yawancin rana suna yin rawar jiki, suna raira waƙa sosai a ƙarƙashin yanayi mafi kyau kuma suna da sauƙin kai lokacin da yanayin ba shi da kyau; mata ma suna yin rawar gani, amma ƙoƙarin su ba shi da mahimmanci idan aka kwatanta da maza. Ana iya ganin nymphs na maza na ƙarshen lokaci suna yin motsi na stridulatory, kodayake ba su da kayan aiki don yin sauti, suna nuna muhimmancin wannan halayyar. Waƙoƙin hanya ce ta sadarwa; ƙarancin namiji yana nuna balaga na haihuwa, sha'awar haɗin kai da jin daɗin mutum. Haɗin kai na zamantakewa ya zama dole tsakanin tsutsa saboda ikon su na tsalle ko tashi nesa mai nisa, kuma waƙar na iya aiki don iyakance warwatsewa da jagorantar wasu zuwa wurin zama mai kyau. Waƙar da aka saba amfani da ita na iya bambanta a cikin maganganu da tsananin ƙarfi, kuma ana canza ta a gaban namiji mai hamayya, kuma tana canzawa zuwa waƙar soyayya lokacin da mace ke kusa.[31] A cikin tsutsa maza na dangin Pneumoridae, babban ciki yana kara sauti.[11]

Tsarin rayuwa

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Matakai shida (instars) na ci gaba, daga sabon yarinya zuwa cikakkiyar fuka-fuki
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Romalea microptera grasshoppers: mace (mafi girma) tana sa ƙwai, tare da namiji a cikin halarta.

A mafi yawan nau'ikan tsutsa, rikice-rikice tsakanin maza akan mata ba sa ƙaruwa fiye da nuni na al'ada. Wasu banbanci sun hada da tsutsa mai tsami (Kosciuscola tristis), inda maza zasu iya yin yaƙi a saman mata masu tsami; shiga cikin kafafu, cinyewa, kicking da hawa.[32]

Tsuntsaye mata na jinsin Chorthippus biguttulus sun bayyana suna iya haɗa bayanai daga waƙoƙin kira na namiji.[33] Wani rukuni na waƙoƙi mara kyau ya fi ƙarfin rukuni na waƙa mai kyau, kuma wannan haɗin kai ya dace da ka'idojin Zaɓin jima'i saboda yana taimaka wa mata su guje wa yiwuwar hulɗa mai tsada tare da abokan haɗin da ba su dace ba idan waƙar ta kasance na wani nau'i ko kuma tana nuna namiji mara inganci.[33]

Sabon tsutsa mai tsutsa yana da lokacin preoviposition na mako guda ko biyu yayin da yake ƙaruwa cikin nauyi kuma ƙwai suna girma. Bayan haɗuwa, mace ta yawancin jinsuna tana tono rami tare da ovipositor kuma tana sa ƙwai a cikin ƙasa kusa da tsire-tsire masu abinci, yawanci a lokacin rani. Bayan ta sa qwai, sai ta rufe ramin da ƙasa da datti.[12] Wasu, kamar Cornops aquaticum na rabin ruwa, suna ajiye kwalba kai tsaye a cikin nama.[34] Kwayoyin da ke cikin kwandon suna manne tare da froth a wasu nau'o'in. Bayan 'yan makonni na ci gaba, ƙwai na yawancin jinsuna a cikin yanayin yanayi suna shiga cikin diapause, kuma suna wuce hunturu a wannan jihar. Diapause ya karye ta hanyar isasshen zafin jiki na ƙasa, tare da ci gaba da ci gaba yayin da ƙasa ta yi zafi sama da wani ƙofar zafin jiki. Kwayoyin da ke cikin kwandon gabaɗaya duk suna fitowa cikin 'yan mintoci kaɗan daga juna. Ba da daɗewa ba suka zubar da membranes kuma exoskeletons sun yi tauri. Wadannan nymphs na farko zasu iya tsalle daga masu cin nama.

Grasshoppers suna fuskantar Metamorphosis mara cikakke: suna maimaitawa, kowane instar yana zama babba kuma ya fi kama da babba, tare da fuka-fukan fuka-fuka suna ƙaruwa a kowane mataki. Adadin instars ya bambanta tsakanin jinsuna amma sau da yawa shida ne. Bayan motsi na ƙarshe, fuka-fukan suna kumbura kuma suna aiki sosai. Tsuntsu mai ƙaura, Melanoplus sanguinipes, yana ciyar da kimanin kwanaki 25 zuwa 30 a matsayin nymph, dangane da jima'i da zafin jiki, kuma yana rayuwa kusan kwanaki 51 a matsayin babba.

Rashin jituwa

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Miliyoyin kwari a kan tafiya a Ostiraliya

Tsuntsaye sune lokacin da wasu nau'o'in tsutsa masu gajeren ƙaho a cikin iyalin Acrididae. Halin warming shine martani ga yawan jama'a. Ƙarin motsawar taɓawa na kafafu na baya yana haifar da karuwa a matakan serotonin. Wannan yana sa tsutsa ya canza launi, ya ciyar da shi kuma ya haifa da sauri. Canjin mutum mai zaman kansa zuwa wani taro yana haifar da lambobi da yawa a minti daya a cikin ɗan gajeren lokaci.[35]

Bayan wannan canji, a karkashin yanayin da ya dace, ƙungiyoyi masu yawa na nymphs marasa tashi da aka sani da "hoppers" na iya faruwa, suna samar da pheromones wanda ke jan hankalin kwari ga juna. Tare da tsararraki da yawa a cikin shekara, yawan tsutsa na iya tarawa daga kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu zuwa tarin kwari masu tashi da aka sani da annoba, suna cinye duk tsire-tsire da suka haɗu da su. Mafi girman tarin tsutsa da aka rubuta shine wanda aka kafa ta tsohuwar tsutsa ta Rocky Mountain a cikin 1875; tsutsa ta kasance mil 1,800 (2,900 tsawo da mil 110 (180 fadi, kuma wani kimantawa ya sanya yawan tsutsa da ke ciki a tiriliyan 3.5. Wani tsutsa mai girma na hamada na iya cin kusan 2 grams (0.1 oz) na kayan shuka kowace rana, don haka biliyoyin kwari a cikin babban tarin na iya zama mai lalacewa sosai, yana cire dukkan ganye daga shuke-shuke a yankin da abin ya shafa kuma yana cinye tsiro, furanni, 'ya'yan itace, tsaba da bark.[36]

Image
Tsuntsu tare da ƙwayoyin cuta
Image
Tsuntsaye da aka kashe ta hanyar fungus na halitta, Metarhizium, hanyar da ke da kyau ga muhalli ta kula da kwayoyin halitta. CSIRO, 2005 [37]

Bayanan da aka ambata

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

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  1. ↑ "grasshopper: Description, Features, & Species". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 September 2021.
  2. ↑ Nuwer, Rachel (6 March 2013). "A Plague of Locusts Descends Upon the Holy Land, Just in Time for Passover". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
  3. ↑ "Caelifera:Grasshoppers and Locusts". Encyclopedia of Life. Archived from the original on 11 April 2017. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
  4. ↑ "Suborder Caelifera – Grasshoppers". BugGuide. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
  5. ↑ "About Orthoptera: Crickets and grasshoppers". Orthoptera.org.uk. Archived from the original on 5 August 2017.
  6. ↑ "ITIS Standard Report Page: Acrididea". www.itis.gov. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017.
  7. ↑ Flook, P.K.; Rowell, C.H.F. (1997). "The Phylogeny of the Caelifera (Insecta, Orthoptera) as Deduced from mtrRNA Gene Sequences". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 8 (1): 89–103. Bibcode:1997MolPE...8...89F. doi:10.1006/mpev.1997.0412. PMID 9242597.
  8. ↑ Zhang, Hong-Li; Huang, Yuan; Lin, Li-Liang; Wang, Xiao-Yang; Zheng, Zhe-Min (2013). "The phylogeny of the Orthoptera (Insecta) as deduced from mitogenomic gene sequences". Zoological Studies. 52. doi:10.1186/1810-522X-52-37.
  9. ↑ Béthoux, Oliver; Ross, A.J. (2005). "Mesacridites Riek, 1954 (Middle Triassic; Australia) transferred from Protorthoptera to Orthoptera: Locustavidae". Journal of Paleontology. 79 (3): 607–610. Bibcode:2005JPal...79..607B. doi:10.1666/0022-3360(2005)079<0607:mrmatf>2.0.co;2. S2CID 131591210.
  10. 1 2 Rowell, Hugh; Flook, Paul (2001). "Caelifera: Shorthorned Grasshoppers, Locusts and Relatives". Tree of Life web project. Archived from the original on 8 April 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  11. 1 2 Donelson, Nathan C.; van Staaden, Moira J. (2005). "Alternate tactics in male bladder grasshoppers Bullacris membracioides (Orthoptera: Pneumoridae)" (PDF). Behaviour. 142 (6): 761–778. doi:10.1163/1568539054729088. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2016.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Pfadt 1994
  13. 1 2 "10 Fascinating Facts About Grasshoppers". ThoughtCo (in Turanci). Retrieved 2024-08-06.
  14. 1 2 "Grasshoppers, crickets, katydids and locusts: Order Orthoptera". Australian Museum. Archived from the original on 18 April 2015. Retrieved 6 April 2015.
  15. ↑ Davidowitz, Goggy. "Grasshoppers". Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. Archived from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
  16. ↑ O'Neill, Kevin M.; Woods, Stephen A.; Streett, Douglas A. (1 December 1997). "Grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae) Foraging on Grasshopper Feces: Observational and Rubidium-Labeling Studies". Environmental Entomology. 26 (6): 1224–1231. doi:10.1093/ee/26.6.1224.
  17. ↑ O'Neill, Kevin M.; Woods, Stephen A.; Streett, Douglas A. (1997). "Grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae) Foraging on Grasshopper Feces: Observational and Rubidium-Labeling Studies". Environmental Entomology. 26 (6): 1224–1231. doi:10.1093/ee/26.6.1224.
  18. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  19. ↑ Yong, Ed (2008-05-08). "March of the locusts – individuals start moving to avoid cannibals". nationalgeographic.com (in Turanci). Archived from the original on 21 May 2021.
  20. ↑ "From solo to sociable—how locusts try to avoid cannibalism". phys.org. 2012-08-29.
  21. 1 2 Chapman 2013
  22. ↑ Chapman 2013.
  23. ↑ Meyer, John R. (8 April 2009). "Circulatory system". General Entomology. NC State University. Archived from the original on 3 January 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  24. ↑ Meyer, John R. (1 November 2006). "Insect physiology: Respiratory system". General Entomology. NC State University. Archived from the original on 3 January 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  25. ↑ Heitler, W.J. (January 2007). "How Grasshoppers Jump". University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  26. ↑ Heitler, W.J. (January 2007). "Performance". University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 19 March 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2015.
  27. ↑ Heitler, W.J. (January 2007). "Energy and Power". University of St Andrews. Archived from the original on 18 November 2014. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
  28. ↑ Burrows, M. (1995). "Motor patterns during kicking movements in the locust". Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 176 (3): 289–305. doi:10.1007/BF00219055. PMID 7707268. S2CID 21759140.
  29. ↑ Heitler, W.J. (1977). "The locust jump III. Structural specialisations of the metathoracic tibiae" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 67: 29–36. doi:10.1242/jeb.67.1.29. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 October 2016.
  30. ↑ Bennet-Clark, H.C. (1975). "The energetics of the jump of the locust Schistocerca gregaria". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 63 (1): 53–83. doi:10.1242/jeb.63.1.53. PMID 1159370. Archived from the original on 3 January 2017.
  31. ↑ Brangham, A.N. (1960). "Communication among social insects". Bulletin of the Amateur Entomologists' Society. 19: 66–68.
  32. ↑ Umbers, K.; Tatarnic, N.; Holwell, G.; Herberstein, M. (2012). "Ferocious Fighting between Male Grasshoppers". PLOS ONE. 7 (11). Bibcode:2012PLoSO...749600U. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049600. PMC 3498212. PMID 23166725.
  33. 1 2 Clemens, J.; Krämer, S.; Ronacher, B. (2014). "Asymmetrical integration of sensory information during mating decisions in grasshoppers". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (46): 16562–16567. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11116562C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1412741111. PMC 4246278. PMID 25368152.
  34. ↑ Hill, M.P.; Oberholzer, I.G. (2000). "Host specificity of the grasshopper, Cornops aquaticum, a natural enemy of water hyacinth" (PDF). Proceedings of the X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. Montana State University: 349–356. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2016.
  35. ↑ Rogers, Stephen M.; Matheson, Thomas; Despland, Emma; Dodgson, Timothy; Burrows, Malcolm; Simpson, Stephen J. (2003). "Mechanosensory-induced behavioral gregarization in the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 206 (22): 3991–4002. doi:10.1242/jeb.00648. PMID 14555739. S2CID 10665260. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2016.
  36. ↑ Capinera 2008
  37. ↑ "CSIRO ScienceImage 1367 Locusts attacked by the fungus Metarhizium". CSIRO. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  38. ↑ Hingston, R.W.G. (1927). "The liquid-squirting habit of oriental grasshoppers". Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. 75: 65–69. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1927.tb00060.x.

Tushen

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Haɗin waje

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