Russian Literature

Russian Literature, literature of the Russian people, written from the 900s to the present. Russian literature includes some of the most beloved and influential plays, novels, and poems in world literature. Scholars generally divide Russian literature into four broad historical periods: Old Russian (10th century to 17th century), Modern Russian (18th century to 1917), Soviet Russian (1917 to 1991), and Post-Soviet (1991 to the present). Although most Russian literature is written in the Russian language, some works are in related Slavic languages such as Old Church Slavonic, which was the first written language in Russia.

Much of the earliest Russian literature consists of religious writings within the tradition of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Western European influences brought examples of nonreligious literature to Russia beginning in the late 17th century, and during much of the 18th century, French influence was especially strong. By the early 19th century, a native tradition had emerged in Russia, along with some of the greatest writers of all time, including Aleksandr Pushkin, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Anton Chekhov. Strong political control over literature marked the period after the 1917 Russian Revolution and the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). With the collapse of the USSR in 1991, and the end of Communism in Russia and the former Soviet republics, a new period of literary freedom began. For information on the literature of former Soviet Republics, see Armenian Literature; Georgian Literature; Lithuanian Literature.

Scholars generally divide the earliest Russian literature into two periods: the Kyiv (also spelled Kiev) and the Muscovite. The Kyiv period extends from the 10th century to the mid-13th century. During that time Kyiv (now the capital of Ukraine) served as Russia’s cultural hub and thrived as one of the most important religious and commercial cities of medieval Europe. In 1240 nomadic peoples from Asia called Tatars invaded and destroyed Kyiv, and Russian cultural and political activity gradually shifted north to Moscow. The Muscovite period, when Moscow became the new power, lasted from the late 13th century to the 17th century. Much of old Russian literature consists of historical chronicles and religious works prompted by Russian participation in the Orthodox Church.

The earliest literary works of the Russians were not in the Russian language but in Old Church Slavonic, a related Slavic language that was the first written language in Russia. Old Church Slavonic was first written down in the 9th century ad by Greek missionaries Cyril and Methodius, who used it to convert Slavic peoples to Christianity. Old Church Slavonic became the liturgical language of the Orthodox Church, which directed literary activity in Russia. In 988 Vladimir I, Grand Duke of Kyiv, converted to Christianity and made it Russia’s official religion. With his conversion came the need for scribes to translate and compile biblical texts, sermons, lives of saints, and other instructive and inspirational writings from Greek originals. As literacy increased, so did the available reading matter: Compilations of knowledge, historical chronicles, and poems appeared, all translated into Old Church Slavonic. Old Church Slavonic remained the literary language of Russia until the 17th century.

Russia’s acceptance of Eastern Orthodox Christianity made available writings from the neighboring Byzantine Empire. Byzantine Greek writings provided models for the first texts produced during the Kyiv period: sermons, lives of saints, and historical chronicles. The most notable of the sermons, Slovo o zakone i blagodati (1050?; Sermon on Law and Grace), is an elaborate oration that was written by the head of the Orthodox Church in Russia at that time, Metropolitan Ilarion. It is generally accepted as the first original work of Russian literature. A number of accounts by anonymous authors of the martyrdom of the first native Russian saints, Boris and Gleb, appeared in the 11th century. The chronicle Povest’ vremennykh let (1113?; Tale of Bygone Years, also known as The Russian Primary Chronicle), attributed to the monk Nestor, surveys the history of the East Slavic peoples (Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians) to the year 1110. The most celebrated work of the period, Slovo o polku Igoreve (1185?; The Song of Igor’s Campaign), recounts in lyrical, rhythmic prose a failed raid undertaken by Prince Igor against an army of Asian nomads. A highly sophisticated work filled with striking, unusual imagery, it stands out so markedly from other literature of the period that a number of scholars have questioned its authenticity. Other scholars contend that its grammar and vocabulary distinguish it as genuine.

In 1240 a Tatar army occupied Kyiv, marking the end of a great period of culture. For the next 200 years the Tatars occupied most of Russia, and literature stagnated. Kyiv’s influence declined and was gradually replaced by that of a new power, Moscow. By the time Ivan IV (known as Ivan the Terrible) became tsar in 1547, Moscow had expelled the Tatars, consolidated its power, and expanded its rule as far east as the Ural Mountains. But in 1453 Russia had been cut off from the Byzantine Empire, the original source of its culture, when Ottoman Empire took control of Constantinople (now İstanbul), the Byzantine capital and the center of the Orthodox Church. With the Ottoman Empire separating it from the rest of Europe, Russia became isolated, just when the European continent was enjoying the Renaissance and a flourishing of the arts and humanities. Until the beginning of the 18th century, Russia remained largely outside developments in the West.

Russia continued to produce literature on both worldly and religious themes, but it increasingly reflected the power-hungry attitudes of the Muscovite state. Tales and poems such as the Zadonshchina (The Battle Beyond the Don, 1390?) celebrated victory over the Tatars. Other works tried to justify Moscow’s claim to leadership of the Orthodox Christian world by claiming that imperial and religious power had been transferred from Rome (capital of the Roman Empire) to Constantinople (capital of the Byzantine Empire) to Moscow (capital of the Russian Empire). Many existing literary works, such as saints’ lives and historical chronicles, were collected and consolidated, signifying the regime’s desire to systematize and regulate political, religious, and cultural life. One of the most interesting of these 16th-century compilations, Domostroi (House-Orderer), sets forth rules both for moral behavior and for the day-to-day running of a household. The Domostroi is not a purely literary work, but it does provide insight into the ideology and everyday culture of 16th-century Russia.