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Higher education

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education. This consists of universities, colleges and polytechnics that offer formal degrees beyond high school or secondary school education.

Definition

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Image
A post-secondary graduate receives a diploma during a graduation ceremony at Germanna Community College in Virginia.

The 1997 version of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) classified all taught higher education as level 5 and doctoral studies as level 6. In the 2011 version, this was refined and expanded into sub-bachelor's higher education (level 5), bachelor's degree-level (level 6), master's degree-level (level 7) and doctoral-level (level 8).[1]

In the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education or basic education, the term "higher education" was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion.[note 1] This is the origin of the term high school for various schools for children between the ages of 14 and 18 (United States) or 11 and 18 (United Kingdom and Australia).[2]

History

[edit]
pranxpr
House of Life
'library'
in hieroglyphs
Image
Bologna University in Italy, established in 1088 A.D., is the world's oldest university in continuous operation.
Image
Established in 1224 by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, University of Naples Federico II in Italy is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.[3][4]

The oldest known institutions of higher education are credited to Dynastic Egypt, with Pr-Anx (houses of life) built as libraries and scriptoriums, containing works on law, architecture, mathematics, and medicine, and involved in the training of "swnw" and "swnwt" (male and female medical practitioners); extant Egyptian papyri from the 3rd millennium BC are in several collections.[5]

In the Greek world, Plato's Academy (c. 387–86 BCE), Aristotle's Lyceum (c. 334–86 BCE) and other philosophical-mathematical schools became models for other establishments, particularly in Alexandria of Egypt, under the Ptolemies.

In South Asia, the city of Taxila[when?], later the great Buddhist monastery of Nalanda (c. 427–1197 CE), attracted students and professors even from distant regions.[6]

In China, the Han dynasty established chairs to teach the Five Confucean Classics in the Grand School, Taixue (c. 3–1905 CE), to train cadres for the imperial administration.[7][8] All these higher-learning institutions became models for other schools within their sphere of cultural influence.[9]

In 425 CE, the Byzantine emperor Theodosius II innovated by establishing the Pandidakterion to train public servants, with a faculty of 31 professors. In the 7th and 8th centuries, "cathedral schools" were created in Western Europe. Meanwhile, the first Madrasahs were founded in the Muslim empires. They began as primary schools on the premises of major mosques, but gradually evolved into secondary schools and centres of higher education. However, these schools cannot be classified as universities because their organisation and purposes were markedly different from the corporations of students and teachers, independent of both the Church and the State, which established themselves from the 12th century in Western Europe as Universitas Studiorum.[citation needed]

Guinness World Records names the University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, Morocco, as the oldest existing and continually operating higher-learning institution in the world,[10] and it is occasionally referred to as the oldest university by scholars.[11] However, there are older institutions of higher education, such as the University of Ez-Zitouna in Montfleury, Tunis, which was first established in 737. The University of Bologna, Italy, founded around 1088, is the world's oldest university (using a strict definition) in continuous operation[12][13][14][15][16] and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the word universitas was coined at its foundation.[12][13][14][15]

20th century

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Since World War II, developed and many developing countries have increased the participation of the age group who mostly studies higher education from the elite rate, of up to 15 per cent, to the mass rate of 16 to 50 per cent.[17][18] In many developed countries, participation in higher education has continued to increase towards universal or, what Trow later called, open access, where over half of the relevant age group participate in higher education.[19] Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are much less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers.[20][21]

21st century

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In recent years, universities have been criticized for permitting or actively encouraging grade inflation.[22][23] Widening participation can increase the supply of graduates in individual fields of study over the demand for their skills, aggravating graduate unemployment, underemployment, overqualification and educational inflation.[24][25] Some commentators[who?] have suggested that the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education is rapidly making certain aspects of the traditional higher education system obsolete.[26] The Israeli-funded Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy and some Israeli media have claimed that involvement and funding by Qatar in higher education in the US has resulted in what they regard as growing anti-Semitism on campuses, particularly in connection to Gaza war protests.[27][better source needed][28]

Effects

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Higher education graduates are likely to have different worldviews and moral values than non-graduates. Graduates are also more likely to embrace cultural and ethnic diversity and express more positive views towards minority groups. For international relationships, graduates are more likely to favor openness, supporting policies like free trade, open borders, and more liberal policies regarding international migration.[29]

Universities and higher education have been linked to increases in human capital, economic growth, and higher wages, as well as reductions in poverty.[30][31][32] A 2025 study found evidence suggesting that those who attend college are less prone to indoctrination.[33] Cost-benefit calculation indicate that government investment in higher education results in net fiscal benefits.[32]

International recognition

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Higher education qualifications from one country can be validated in another country after credential evaluation. This may be covered by bilateral recognition agreements between states, by regional UNESCO conventions such as the Lisbon Recognition Convention, or by UNESCO's Global Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education.[34] UNESCO conventions rely on the principle of granting recognition unless there are "substantial differences" between the foreign qualification and its domestic equivalent, putting the burden of proof on the recognition authority to prove a. substantial difference rather than on the graduate to prove equivalence.[35]

Statistics

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Image
Percentage of 25–29-year-olds who have completed at least four years of tertiary education, by wealth, selected countries, 2008–2014

Globally, the gross enrollment rate in higher education (referred to as tertiary education in international statistics) increased from 19% in 2000 to 38% in 2017.[36] The tertiary gross enrollment ratio ranges from 9% in low-income countries to 77% in high-income countries, which, after rapid growth in the 2000s, reached a plateau in the 2010s.[36] Since 1990s, men are underrepresented among tertiary education students in most developed countries.[37]

Between 2017 and 2030, the biggest increase in tertiary enrollment ratios was expected to be in middle-income countries, where it was predicted to reach 52%. Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) commits countries to providing lifelong learning opportunities for all, including higher education.[36] This commitment is monitored through the global indicator for target 4.3 in SDG 4, which measures the participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months, whether for work or non-work purposes.[36] The right of access to higher education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. The UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 declares in Article 13 that "higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education".[38] In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education.[39][40] University completion rates for students with disabilities are much lower compared to completion rates of students without disabilities.[41]

The total expenditure on higher education institutions (ISCED levels 5 to 8) as a percentage of GDP for individual countries is shown in the following table.

CountryTertiary Education expenditure as % of GDP 2020[42]
Image Australia1.9
Image Austria1.8
Image Belgium1.6
Image Bulgaria1.2
Image Canada2.4
Image Chile2.7
Image Colombia1.5
Image Costa Rica1.6
Image Croatia1.2
Image Czech Republic1.1
Image Denmark1.9
Image Estonia1.5
Image Finland1.6
Image France1.6
Image Germany1.3
Image Greece0.9
Image Hungary0.9
Image Iceland1.4
Image Ireland0.8
Image Israel1.4
Image Italy1.0
Image Japan1.4
Image Latvia1.4
Image Lithuania1.2
Image Luxembourg0.5
Image Mexico1.2
Image Netherlands1.8
Image New Zealand1.6
Image Norway2.0
Image Poland1.3
Image Portugal1.3
Image Romania0.8
Image Slovakia1.1
Image Slovenia1.2
Image South Korea1.5
Image Spain1.5
Image Sweden1.6
Image Turkey1.5
Image United Kingdom1.5
Image United States of America2.5

The percentage of adults who have attained individual tertiary education levels by country is shown in the following table.

Country Ages 25–64: % attaining a tertiary degree course equivalent to at least:[43]
Any tertiary Bachelor's Master's Doctoral
Image Argentina24.81.4
Image Australia51.539.410.91.9
Image Austria35.620.414.81.2
Image Belgium45.845.020.11.1
Image Brazil21.021.01.00.3
Image Bulgaria29.829.820.40.3
Image Canada62.7
Image Chile31.4
Image China18.5
Image Colombia28.3
Image Costa Rica25.3
Image Czech Republic26.726.519.70.7
Image Denmark42.137.016.31.5
Image Estonia42.136.521.80.8
Image Finland42.635.117.31.3
Image France41.627.215.21.0
Image Germany32.531.913.61.9
Image Greece35.134.79.30.9
Image Hungary29.428.513.90.5
Image India12.912.93.43.4
Image Indonesia13.110.30.80.0
Image Iceland43.639.418.11.2
Image Ireland54.444.316.61.7
Image Israel50.639.615.21.2
Image Italy20.320.214.60.6
Image Japan56.1
Image Latvia39.535.118.40.4
Image Lithuania46.546.516.50.8
Image Luxembourg51.546.631.42.9
Image Mexico20.620.11.90.1
Image Netherlands44.742.418.21.2
Image New Zealand39.835.86.31.1
Image Norway48.136.515.41.5
Image Poland33.933.826.20.8
Image Portugal31.531.221.70.9
Image Romania19.7
Image Slovakia29.229.125.30.9
Image Slovenia40.131.720.13.7
Image South Korea52.8
Image South Africa13.9
Image Spain41.128.517.20.8
Image Sweden48.538.718.72.0
Image Switzerland44.744.720.03.2
Image Turkey25.018.32.30.4
Image United Kingdom51.342.315.81.7
Image United States of America50.039.414.42.1

A 2014 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development stated that, by 2014, 84% of young people in high-income countries were completing upper secondary education (which, in the OECD definition, includes further education and some other non-higher-education tertiary education) over their lifetimes. People who went on to higher education were earning twice as much as median workers. Additionally, access to education was expanding and growth in the number of people receiving university education was rising sharply. By 2014, close to 40% of people aged 25–34 (and around 25 percent of those aged 55–64), were being educated at university.[44]

By country

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Canada

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Image
Canada by province and territory, showing the percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had a bachelor's degree or higher, and the percentage point change from 2016 to 2021[45]

Higher education in Canada includes provincial, territorial, Indigenous and military higher education systems. The ideal objective of Canadian higher education is to offer every Canadian the opportunity to acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to realize their utmost potential. It aspires to cultivate a world-class workforce, enhance the employment rate of Canadians, and safeguard Canada's enduring prosperity. Higher education programs are designed with the perspective of the learner in focus, to mitigate risks and assure definite outcomes.[46]

Hong Kong

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Image
Chinese University of Hong Kong, one of Hong Kong's universities

Italy

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Image
Sapienza University of Rome. Founded in 1303, it is one of the world's oldest universities,[47] and with 122,000 students the largest university in Europe.[48]
Image
The Polytechnic University of Milan is the city's oldest university, founded in 1863. It is the largest technical university in Italy.[49]
Image
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, an Italian private research university founded in 1921. Its main campus is located in Milan, Italy, with satellite campuses in Brescia, Piacenza, Cremona and Rome. Degrees are offered both in Italian and in English.[50]

Italian universities are among the oldest universities in the world, with the University of Bologna (founded in 1088) the the oldest extant university and the University of Naples Federico II the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.[51][4] Most universities in Italy are state-supported.

There are also a number of "superior graduate schools" (grandes écoles)[52] or scuola superiore universitaria, which offer titles including the diploma di perfezionamento, equivalent to a doctorate, dottorato di ricerca, i.e., research doctorate or doctor of philosophy.[citation needed]

There are three superior graduate schools with "university status" and three institutes with the status of doctoral colleges, which function at the graduate and post-graduate levels, respectively.[clarification needed] Nine additional schools are direct offshoots of the universities, i.e., do not have their own 'university status'. One is the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa (founded in 1810 by Napoleon as a branch of École Normale Supérieure), borrowing its model of organization from the École Normale Supérieure. These institutions are commonly referred to as "schools of excellence" ("scuole di eccellenza").[52]

Japan

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Image
University of Tokyo, a research university in Tokyo

Kazakhstan

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Higher education in Kazakhstan is governed by the Law on Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan, model rules for higher-education institutions, and individual university charters.[53][54] It encompasses universities and other higher-education institutions, with governance structures defined by law and institutional statutes.

The Ministry of Science and Higher Education supervises accreditation, licensing, and quality assurance for tertiary institutions. Rectors and academic councils manage day-to-day operations within universities and colleges, while individual charters provide additional rules for governance, curricula, and institutional procedures. Students have the right to access state-guaranteed higher education, subject to admission requirements and state regulations.[53]

Philippines

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Portugal

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Ukraine

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United States

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Image
The University of Pennsylvania, an American research university

The higher education system in the United States is decentralized and regulated independently by each state[55] with accreditors playing a key role in ensuring institutions meet minimum standards. It is large and diverse with institutions that are privately governed and institutions that are owned and operated by state and local governments. Some private institutions are affiliated with religious organizations whereas others are secular with enrollment ranging from a few dozen to tens of thousands of students. The United States Department of Education presents a broad-spectrum view of tertiary education and detailed information on the nation's educational structure, accreditation procedures, and connections to state as well as federal agencies and entities.[56]

The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education provides one framework for classifying U.S. colleges and universities in several different ways.[57] US tertiary education also includes various non-profit organizations promoting professional development of individuals in the field of higher education and helping expand awareness of related issues like international student services and complete campus internationalization.[58][59]

Image
Alma Mater by Daniel Chester French, Columbia University. The alma mater, meaning "nourishing mother" in Latin, is one of the most enduring symbols of the university. The phrase was first used[citation needed] to describe the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088.

Nigeria

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Image
Federal Polytechnic, Nekede in Owerri, Nigeria

In Nigeria, access to higher education is via the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME), combined with O-level credits and post-UTME screening examinations.[60]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ↑ For example, Higher Education: General and Technical, a 1933 National Union of Teachers pamphlet by Lord Eustace Percy, which is actually about secondary education and uses the two terms interchangeably.

References

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  1. ↑ "Revision of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)" (PDF). www.uis.unesco.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-05-25. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  2. ↑ "high school". Archived from the original on 2021-02-27. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  3. ↑ Storia d'Italia. Vol. 4. Torino: UTET. 7 August 1981. p. 122. ISBN 88-02-03568-7.
  4. 1 2 Delle Donne, Fulvio (2010). Storia dello Studium di Napoli in età sveva (in Italian). Mario Adda Editore. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-88-8082-841-9.
  5. ↑ Gordan, Andrew H.; Shwabe, Calvin W. (2004). The Quick and the Dead: Biomedical Theory in Ancient Egypt. Egyptological Memoirs. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. p. 154. ISBN 978-90-04-12391-5.
  6. ↑ Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1989) [1947]. Ancient Indian education: Brahmanical and Buddhist. History and Culture Series (2nd ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4.
  7. ↑ Balazs, Étienne (1968). La Bureaucratie céleste: recherches sur l'économie et la société de la Chine traditionnelle. Bibliothèque des sciences humaines (in French). Paris: Gallimard.
  8. ↑ Peter Tze Ming Ng (2001), "Paradigm shift and the state of the field in the study of Christian higher education in China", Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie, no. 12, pp. 127–140
  9. ↑ Yang, Rui (2019-09-02). "Emulating or integrating? Modern transformations of Chinese higher education". Journal of Asian Public Policy. 12 (3): 294–311. doi:10.1080/17516234.2018.1448213. ISSN 1751-6234.
  10. ↑ "Oldest university". www.guinnessworldrecords.com. Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 2014-10-07. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  11. ↑ Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-521-54113-8, pp. 35–76 (35)
  12. 1 2 "Times Higher Education - QS World University Rankings 2007 - World's oldest universities". QS Top Universities. Archived from the original on 17 January 2009. Retrieved 6 January 2010.
  13. 1 2 Gaston, Paul L. (2010). The challenge of Bologna: What United States higher education has to learn from Europe, and why it matters that we learn it. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-57922-366-3. OCLC 320189904.
  14. 1 2 Janin, Hunt (2008). The University in Medieval Life, 1179-1499. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. pp. 55f. ISBN 978-0-7864-3462-6.
  15. 1 2 Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (1992). Universities in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–55. ISBN 978-0-521-54113-8.
  16. ↑ "The Porticoes of Bologna". UNESCO Centre du patrimoine mondial (in French). Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
  17. ↑ Trow, Martin (1973). Problems in the transition from elite to mass higher education (PDF) (Report). Berkeley: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
  18. ↑ Brennan, John (2002). "The social role of the contemporary university: contradictions, boundaries and change" (PDF). Ten years on: Changing higher education in a changing world. Buckingham: Centre for Higher Education Research and Information, Open University. pp. 22–26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  19. ↑ Trow, Martin (2005-08-05), Reflections on the transition from elite to mass to universal access: forms and phases of higher education in modern societies since WWII Republished in Forest, James J. F.; Altbach, Philip G., eds. (2006-04-20). International Handbook of Higher Education: Part One: Global Themes and Contemporary Challenges. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Vol. 18. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. pp. 243–280. ISBN 978-1-4020-4011-5. OCLC 65166668.
  20. ↑ Simkovic, Michael (5 September 2011). "Risk-Based Student Loans". Washington and Lee Law Review. SSRN 1941070.
  21. ↑ OECD (2011), Education at a Glance
  22. ↑ Gunn, Andrew; Kapade, Priya (25 May 2018), The university grade inflation debate is going global, University World News, archived from the original on 26 May 2018, retrieved 23 June 2019, T he grading process has been compromised as universities are incentivised to meet the demands of their customers and graduate more students with top grades to boost their institutional ranking.
  23. ↑ Baker, Simon (28 June 2018), "Is grade inflation a worldwide trend?", The World University Rankings, Times Higher Education, archived from the original on 25 October 2019, retrieved 23 June 2019, Departments where enrollments were falling felt under pressure to relax their grading practices to make their courses more attractive, leading to an "arms race" in grade inflation.
  24. ↑ Coates, Ken; Morrison, Bill (2016), Dream Factories: Why Universities Won't Solve the Youth Jobs Crisis, Toronto: Dundurn Books, p. 232, ISBN 978-1-4597-3377-0, archived from the original on 2021-09-21, retrieved 2021-09-21
  25. ↑ Brown, Phillip; Lauder, Hugh; Ashton, David (2012), The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs, and Incomes, Oxford University Press, p. 208, ISBN 978-0-19-992644-2, archived from the original on 2021-03-10, retrieved 2020-12-11
  26. ↑ Kaplan, Andreas (2021-04-06). Higher education at the crossroads of disruption: The university of the 21st century. Emerald. doi:10.1108/9781800715011. ISBN 978-1-80071-504-2. S2CID 233594353.
  27. ↑ "Follow the Money: Qatar Funding of Higher Education". Institute for the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy. Retrieved 2023-12-24.
  28. ↑ Shulman, Sophie (30 October 2023). "Tuition of terror: Qatari money flowed into U.S. universities - and now it's fueling violence". CTech. Rishon LeZion, Israel: Yedioth Ahronoth Group. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
  29. ↑ Ford, Robert; Jennings, Will (2020). "The Changing Cleavage Politics of Western Europe". Annual Review of Political Science. 23: 295–314. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-052217-104957.
  30. ↑ Valero, Anna; Van Reenen, John (2019). "The economic impact of universities: Evidence from across the globe". Economics of Education Review. 68: 53–67. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.09.001.
  31. ↑ Gethin, Amory (2025-10-11). "Distributional Growth Accounting: Education and the Reduction of Global Poverty, 1980–2019". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 140 (4): 2571–2618. doi:10.1093/qje/qjaf033. ISSN 0033-5533.
  32. 1 2 Mountjoy, Jack (2025). "Marginal Returns to Public Universities". The Quarterly Journal of Economics qjaf055. doi:10.1093/qje/qjaf055. ISSN 0033-5533.
  33. ↑ Argote, Pablo; Voytas, Elsa (2025). "The Anti-Left Legacy of the Pinochet Dictatorship". Comparative Political Studies 00104140251381768. doi:10.1177/00104140251381768. ISSN 0010-4140.
  34. ↑ "Lisbon Recognition Convention". www.coe.int. Archived from the original on 2019-05-28. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  35. ↑ Anasse Bouhlal; Peter J. Wells (2019). "UNESCO Conventions on the Recognition of Higher-Education Qualifications". Major Challenges Facing Higher Education in the Arab World: Quality Assurance and Relevance. Springer.
  36. 1 2 3 4 #CommitToEducation. UNESCO. 2019. ISBN 978-92-3-100336-3. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
  37. ↑ Stoet, Gijsbert; Geary, David C. (2020). "Gender differences in the pathways to higher education". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (25): 14073–14076. doi:10.1073/pnas.2002861117. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 7322061. PMID 32513710. Retrieved 2026-05-20.
  38. ↑ International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights . 1966 – via Wikisource.
  39. ↑ "Protocol No. 1 to the Convention - Toolkit - www.coe.int". Council of Europe. Archived from the original on 2023-03-27. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  40. ↑ David, Jarolím (2021-02-03). "tài liệu học tập". Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  41. ↑ Thompson, Stephen (2020), "Developing disability-inclusive higher education systems" (PDF), International Higher Education, no. 100, archived (PDF) from the original on 13 June 2022, retrieved 22 April 2022
  42. ↑ OECD. "OECD.stat Educational Finance Indicators Indicator C2: Total expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP, 2020". stats.oecd.org. Archived from the original on 2024-07-03. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  43. ↑ OECD.stat Educational attainment and labour-force status, Educational attainment of 2-64 year-olds, 2022
  44. ↑ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (September 2014). "Higher levels of education paying off for young, says OECD". Archived from the original on 28 June 2013. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
  45. ↑ "British Columbia and Ontario saw the largest percentage point increases in degree holders from 2016 to 2021". Statistics Canada. 30 November 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  46. ↑ A Plan for Growth and Prosperity. Ottawa: Department of Finance Canada. 2005. pp. 25+. ISBN 0-662-42124-8.
  47. ↑ "La storia | Sapienza Università di Roma". www.uniroma1.it. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  48. ↑ "Chi siamo | Sapienza Università di Roma". www.uniroma1.it. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  49. ↑ "QS World University Rankings 2018". QS World University Rankings. Retrieved 9 October 2017.
  50. ↑ "Catholic universities in Europe, Italy study abroad, Milan semester programs". Learn4Good. 2012-01-07. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
  51. ↑ Storia d'Italia (in Italian). Vol. 4. Torino: UTET. 7 August 1981. p. 122. ISBN 88-02-03568-7.
  52. 1 2 "Ricerca Italiana - Scuole di Eccellenza". www.ricercaitaliana.it (in Italian). Archived from the original on 2013-03-07. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  53. 1 2 "Law on Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan". Adilet. Retrieved 2025-11-29.
  54. ↑ "Model Rules for Higher-Education Institutions". Adilet. Retrieved 2025-11-29.
  55. ↑ "For Profit Postsecondary Schools: Oversight and Governing Statutes & Regulations" (PDF). www.caichildlaw.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-05-15. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  56. ↑ "National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Home Page, part of the U.S. Department of Education". nces.ed.gov. Retrieved 2018-07-02.
  57. ↑ "IU research Center to House Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education | Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching". Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 2014-10-07. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 2018-07-02.
  58. ↑ "Understanding U.S. Higher Education". EducationUSA. 2015-01-08. Archived from the original on 2018-07-02. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  59. ↑ "The American Council on Education". www.acenet.edu. Archived from the original on 2018-07-02. Retrieved 2025-12-14.
  60. ↑ "6 requirements you MUST meet to gain admission into higher institutions". Pulse Nigeria. 2018-01-17. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 2019-12-17.

Sources

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  • Brick, Jean (2006). "What is academic culture?". Academic Culture: A Student's Guide to Studying at University. Sydney, NSW: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-1-74138-135-1.
  • Image This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from #CommitToEducation​, 35, UNESCO. UNESCO.

Further reading

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[edit]
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